Studying Language + Linguistics
Define orthography and lexicon
Orthography: the conventional spelling system of a language
Lexicon: the vocabulary of a language or, in the case of an individual, a mental dictionary of words.
What is the word for the study of the origin and history of words (and phrases), including how their forms, meanings, and pronunciations have changed over time?
Etymology
What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive views of language?
Prescriptivism focuses on how people should use language according to established rules and norms.
Descriptivism focuses on how people actually use language in everyday life.
What's the big negative outcome of standardization?
Linguistic systems not selected as the standard are subsequently marked as nonstandard or even substandard, dialects that are equal in terms of their linguistic structure become unequal socially, pedagogically, and sometimes politically. Standardization creates a hierarchy in which nonstandard dialects occupy unequal societal prestige as they lack the weight of those social, political, and educational support structures behind it.
The phonological system associated with a specific linguistic variety is known as a(n)...
An Accent
What are the four key principles in linguistics?
1. Language is governed by rules
2. All languages are created equal
3. Language changes
4. Language varies
What is the word for those who write and edit dictionaries, deciding which words to include, define, and how to use them. They track word usage in various materials, analyze etymology and grammar, and contribute to updating both print and digital language resources to reflect current language use and trends.
Lexicographers
Define prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. Generally, when people say grammar, which one are they referring to?
Prescriptive grammar: the rules of language that dictate a formal, standard usage
Descriptive grammar: the rules of naturally occurring speech
Prescriptive
What is the most important positive outcome of standardization?
Standardization eases communication. Language can vary to a point where dialects within that language become mutually unintelligible, and standardization helps keep communication consistent across a linguistic community. Governments, courts, education, etc. greatly benefit from standardization of English.
What is morphology?
The rules of word formation in a language with regard to the smallest units of meaning.
Those smallest units of meaning in a language: morphemes.
Explain the difference between an accent and a dialect
An accent is the way in which speakers of a particular variety pronounce words and the rules that govern these pronunciations.
A dialect is a variety of language associated with a specific region or social group. Dialects are distinguished from one another by variations in their lexicon, phonology, morphology, and syntax.
What term from the textbook refers to: those who are given widespread language authority, including copy-editors, dictionary usage panelists, style manual and handbook writers, English teachers, essayists, columnists, and pundits?
Language mavens
What does it mean if a sentence is grammatical?
When people produce speech that adheres to the rules of a particular language or dialect, we say they are following the grammar of that linguistic system. If an utterance follows these rules, it is grammatical; if it does not follow these rules, the utterance is ungrammatical.
Descriptive linguists concern themselves with determining which structures in a language are grammatical and which are ungrammatical, rather than focusing on the aesthetic judgments of prescriptive grammar. In other words, descriptive linguists are interested in what native speakers do say, as opposed to prescriptivists, who are interested in dictating what speakers should or should not say.
What are the four sub-processes of standardization?
Selection, Codification, Elaboration, and Acceptance/Maintenance.
What distinguishes vowels and consonants?
Vowels represent sounds where the vocal tract remains open, and consonants represent sounds with a closure of the vocal tract.
You can sound out vowel sounds with your mouth open and without somewhat closing your vocal tract, you cannot with consonants.
Language is an ___, _____, _________ system of sounds/signs for communication within a linguistic community. Fill in the gaps and explain why we characterize language like that for each.
open, arbitrary, conventional.
Open: they allow speakers to adopt new forms, to avoid forms they consider obsolete, or to use old structures in new ways, for example, by creating or borrowing new words for novel concepts, by varying their pronunciation, or by expanding or limiting their range of meanings.
Arbitrary: there is no inherent link between sound and meaning
Conventional: it relies on speakers to agree (often unconsciously) on the relationship between a word and its meaning.
Give 3 examples of institutions or organizations that are language authorities of English in the United States.
Dictionaries: Merriam-Webster, Oxford English Dictionary, Dictionary.com, etc.
Style Guides: MLA Handbook, APA Publication Manual, Associated Press Stylebook, etc.
Educational and Curriculum Bodies: College Board, Educational Testing Service, etc.
Media and Broadcasting: NPR, New York Times, Broadcast networks' standards and practices, etc.
List goes on...
Contrast how descriptivists and prescriptivists approach grammaticality judgements.
Prescriptivists make grammaticality judgements based on how they think people should talk. They'll determine that speech inconsistent with the standard variety they favor is ungrammatical.
Descriptivists simply identify whether the form fits within the structure of naturally occurring speech.
What is Standard Language Ideology?
A bias toward an abstract, idealized homogeneous language, which is imposed and maintained by dominant institutions and which has as its model the written language, but which is drawn primarily from the spoken language of the upper middle class.
What's the difference between syntax and morphology?
Syntax pertains to the rules governing phrase structure, or the order in which words can be combined in a given language for them to convey meaning. Morphology pertains to word formation in a language.
Broadly: Syntax: sentence structure, morphology: making words
Do people who speak a more standard dialect like Midland American English have idiolects? Why or why not?
Yes, everyone has an idiolect. An idiolect is the language use of an individual, which can encompass multiple languages and/or dialects. They are individualized and unique to each person, no two people have exactly the same idiolect. It's the unique way you talk, the confluence of everything that has influenced how you speak.
Are dictionaries, such as the OED, prescriptive, descriptive, or both? Explain.
The OED is primarily descriptive, though like all dictionaries, its authority can make it function prescriptively in practice.
State whether the following examples are grammatical or not:
Make no difference to me.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
It's a lot of people in here.
This the book that I don’t remember who wrote it.
Green ideas colorless sleep furiously.
Grammatical, grammatical, grammatical, grammatical, ungrammatical.
True or False: "The English language is not fully standardized, and it never will be." Explain your answer.
True, and it will most likely never be fully standardized. Standardization is a process, and language changes and varies faster than standardization can occur. English is spoken in so many different ways among different groups and in different places, and there's ultimately too much variety and change to enable full successful standardization. Barring a 1984-style situation, English will never be fully standardized.
Phonetics: physical characteristics of speech; how sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived
Phone: A single, distinct speech sound as it is physically produced and heard in a language. This is a single sound, think of a single character of IPA.
Phonology: the system that comprises the sounds that are considered distinct in a given language.