Deductive or Inductive?
All dogs are mammals. Max is a dog. Therefore, Max is a mammal.
Deductive
This starts with a general truth and applies it to a specific case. The conclusion must be true if the premises are true.
Almost all the students I talked to didn’t like the senator. I’m sure he’ll lose the election.
Hasty Generalization
Assumes that a few opinions represent the entire population. Too small of a sample.
I had an internship at a government agency, and no one worked hard. Government workers are lazy.
Hasty Generalization
The speaker makes a conclusion about all government workers based on one limited personal experience. The sample size is too small to represent everyone.
I’m not a doctor, but I play one on TV. I recommend this cough syrup.
False Authority
The person uses fame or a fake role to seem credible, even though they have no actual medical expertise.
You always get good grades. You must be naturally smart.
Hasty Generalization
Ignores other factors like studying or effort and jumps to a conclusion based on one observation.
Every time I’ve eaten at that restaurant, the food was great. It’s probably great again today.
Inductive
Uses repeated experiences to predict what will happen next. It’s likely, but not guaranteed.
This car has a noisy engine; therefore, it must create a lot of pollution.
False Cause (Post Hoc)
Mistakes noise for proof of pollution—two unrelated things.
When we had a draft in the 1960s, the crime rate was low. We should bring back the draft.
False Cause
Just because two things happened at the same time (the draft and low crime) doesn’t mean one caused the other. This mixes up correlation and causation
If you aren’t part of the solution, you’re part of the problem
False Dilemma
This statement only offers two extreme choices, ignoring any middle ground or neutral positions someone could take.
My cousin’s friend smoked his whole life and lived to 100, so smoking can’t be that bad.
Anecdotal Fallacy
Uses one rare example to disprove large scientific evidence.
The last three history tests were easy. The next one will probably be easy too.
Inductive
Based on observation and probability. It guesses that the pattern will continue.
I don’t know how Professor Resnick can be such a hard grader. He’s always late for class
Ad Hominem
Attacks the person instead of addressing the grading standards.
Some people are complaining about public schools, so there must be a problem
Bandwagon / Appeal to Popularity
The argument assumes that if many people complain, the complaint must be true — but popularity doesn’t prove accuracy.
I don’t know why you gave me an F for copying. Didn’t you ever copy from someone else?
Tu Quoque (Appeal to Hypocrisy)
Instead of addressing the wrongdoing, the speaker attacks the teacher’s behavior, trying to justify cheating by accusing the teacher of the same thing.
If students are allowed to redo one assignment, soon they’ll expect to redo everything
Slippery Slope
Predicts an extreme outcome without evidence that it will actually happen.
All people need oxygen to survive. Since Maria is a person, she needs oxygen.
Deductive
Follows a clear, logical structure—universal rule → specific example → definite conclusion.
A vote for the bill to limit gun sales is a vote against the Second Amendment.
False Dilemma (Either/Or Fallacy)
Only presents two extreme sides when there are many possible positions.
I bought a new computer and installed software. Now it won’t start — the software must be the problem
Post Hoc (False Cause)
The speaker assumes that because one event followed another, the first one caused the second. Timing alone doesn’t prove cause.
Shakespeare was the world’s greatest playwright; therefore, Macbeth must be a great play.
Appeal to Authority
The speaker assumes the play is great only because of Shakespeare’s reputation, not because of the play’s actual quality or evidence
Everyone on TikTok says this diet works, so it must be effective
Bandwagon / Appeal to Popularity
Assumes something is true because many people believe it.
If it rains, the streets get wet. It’s raining now, so the streets must be wet.
Deductive
Applies a rule (“If it rains, streets get wet”) to a current situation. The reasoning is certain, not just probable.
It’s only fair to pay your fair share of taxes.
Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question)
Restates the claim without offering actual evidence—goes in a circle.
Everybody knows that staying out in the rain can make you sick
Appeal to Popularity (Common Belief)
The claim relies on what “everybody knows” instead of real evidence. Just because many believe it doesn’t make it scientifically true.
Russell Simmons and Natalie Portman are against animal testing, and that’s good enough for me.
Appeal to Celebrity / False Authority
The argument relies on celebrity opinions instead of logic or evidence. Being famous doesn’t make someone an expert on animal testing.
Our team won because I wore my lucky shoes.
False Cause (Post Hoc)
Mistakes coincidence for causation — the shoes didn’t affect the outcome.