Conclusions
Conclusions are often indicated by language cues.
Give me three examples of words/phrases that signal a conclusion?
therefore, so, hence, thus, it follows that, this suggests that,but, however, It follows that, accordingly, undoubtedly, ect.
What all premises have in common is that, unlike conclusions, they are supported by everything else in the argument.
Is the above statement True or False?
False
Assumption questions ask you to identify the unstated premise that the author is relying on to bridge the gap between their evidence and their conclusion
Is the above statement True of False?
True
Flaw questions are the most common question type in the LR section.
True or False
True
The answers to Strengthen and Weaken questions can address an assumption by bringing in new and unexpected information.
Is the above statement True or False?
True, these questions ask you to bring in new information from the answer choices to actively affect the argument's validity.
What is every argument designed to do...
prove a point and that point is the conclusion.
To be a part of a successful/valid argument a premise must...
support the conclusion in some way
A _______ assumption is one that guarantees in order the conclusion. Add it to an argument and the conclusion must logically follow.
Necessary or Sufficient
Sufficient
Flaw questions are often signaled by certain keywords, give me three examples?
flaw, error, vulnerable to criticism, questionable reasoning, erroneous reasoning, fails to consider, presumes, ignores, ect...
In weakening questions, the goal is to make this specific relationship between the premises and the conclusion less likely to be ____.
True or Valid
Valid.
Remember, you do not have to consider whether the answer could be true in real life or not just that the argument is valid.
Remember A premise ___ __ an opinion, but the conclusion __ _____ an opinion.
Fill in the blanks.
Can be / is always
Remember, when questioning the logic of an argument, our job is simply to determine if the argument is _____— that is, whether the premises, if they were true, would _______ the conclusion.
Fill in the blanks
valid / support
This is the primary "litmus test" used to verify a Necessary Assumption; you make the answer choice false to see if the argument dies.
Negation Test
Remember, flaw questions are purely descriptive. You aren't trying to change the argument; you are just pointing out why it's already weak.The answer choices will describe a _____ ______that has already happened in the text.
Fill in the blanks.
Logical Error
To strengthen an argument, you must identify and then fill in the _____, which exists between the premises and the conclusion.
gap / logical gap
Identify the conclusion in the following passage...
Waste management companies, which collect waste for disposal in landfills and incineration plants, report that disposable plastics make up an ever-increasing percentage of the waste they handle. It is clear that attempts to decrease the amount of plastic that people throw away in the garbage are failing.
C: It is clear that attempts to decrease the amount of plastic that people throw away in the garbage are failing.
Identify the premise in the following passage...
Data from satellite photographs of the tropical rain forest in Melonia show that last year the deforestation rate of this environmentally sensitive zone was significantly lower than in previous years. The Melonian government, which spent millions of dollars last year to enforce laws against burning and cutting of the forest, is claiming that the satellite data indicate that its increased efforts to halt the destruction are proving effective.
P1. The deforestation rate is decreasing.
P2. the government spent millions of dollars to curb clear cutting and burning.
Argument: "The local library recently started charging a small fee for late book returns. Since the library's goal is to encourage more people to read, the new fee is a failure."
Which of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
A) Most people who use the library are students.
B) The library will use the money from fees to buy more books.
C) A late fee will discourage people from borrowing books and reading.
D) The library used to have a very high rate of late returns.
The answer is C
If you negate this (The fee does NOT discourage reading), the author’s argument that the fee is a "failure" completely falls apart.
Argument: "A recent study found that people who own at least one pet have lower blood pressure on average than people who do not own pets. Therefore, if you want to lower your blood pressure, you should go out and buy a cat or a dog."
The reasoning in the argument above is flawed because it...
A) Fails to provide the specific blood pressure numbers for pet owners.
B) Mistakes a correlation between two factors for a causal relationship between them.
C) Relies on a sample that is likely unrepresentative of the general population.
D) Attacks the character of people who do not own pets.
The answer is B.
This is the classic "Correlation $\neq$ Causation" trap. Just because two things happen together doesn't mean one caused the other.
Argument: "A study of 500 people found that those who drank green tea every morning reported significantly higher energy levels than those who did not. Therefore, the antioxidants found in green tea are responsible for increasing people's energy."
Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the argument above?
A) Most of the people in the study also exercised regularly.
B) Green tea contains more antioxidants than black tea does.
C) Some people who drink green tea do not experience any increase in energy.
D) The participants in the study who did not drink green tea consumed the same amount of caffeine as those who did.
The answer is D.
This rules out a major "alternative cause" (caffeine). By showing that both groups had the same caffeine, it suggests that the energy difference must be coming from something else in the tea—like the antioxidants.