Techniques, roles and principles
The coypu, a rodent native to South America, became a pest in eastern England after it was introduced there in the 1920s. In 1962 the British government, hoping to reduce the coypu population rapidly, began a program to trap coypus. However, the government's claim that its program caused that year's 90 percent reduction in the coypu population was unjustified since the first winter of the program was extremely cold, and the coypu cannot survive severely cold weather.
The argument proceeds by
A questioning the accuracy of the government's claim that the coypu population declined by 90 percent after one year
B suggesting that trapping alone would have made no significant difference in the coypu population
C suggesting an alternative explanation for the rapid decline in the coypu population
D challenging the idea that the government was justified in reducing the coypu population as drastically and rapidly as it did
E demonstrating that trapping was not the most effective measure the government could have taken to reduce the coypu population
C suggesting an alternative explanation for the rapid decline in the coypu population
Entrepreneur: Recently a small piece of moon rock that fell to Earth as a meteorite was auctioned off for more than $200,000 a gram. At that price, mining moon rock directly would make a huge profit, even given the expected cost of space travel and mining on the Moon. Thus, the Moonmine Corporation would be extremely profitable if its goal of establishing a mine on the Moon were achieved.
Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the entrepreneur's argument?
A The larger a given piece of moon rock is, the more likely it is to fall to Earth as a meteorite.
B The Moonmine Corporation lacks the equipment, funding, and expertise necessary to establish a mine on the Moon and has little prospect of ever obtaining them.
C No corporation or individual has ever made any profit by mining or otherwise removing any quantity of moon rock from the Moon.
D People who are willing to pay high prices for pieces of moon rock value moon rock only because extremely little moon rock is owned by anyone on Earth.
E The costs of space travel and mining on the Moon per gram of moon rock brought to Earth depend largely on how much moon rock is obtained in this way.
D People who are willing to pay high prices for pieces of moon rock value moon rock only because extremely little moon rock is owned by anyone on Earth.
When the Green Line bus company declares bankruptcy next month, thousands of people will have no access to mass transit. Therefore, the regional government should buy the line and convert it to a public bus service. Some argue that this plan would waste public funds. However, ensuring the provision of vital community services is more important than fiscal efficiency.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
A Green Line's financial difficulties result from inefficient management.
B Green Line can be operated more efficiently with public rather than private ownership.
C Bus service is the form of mass transit used most by the region's residents.
D Mass transit is a vital community service within the region.
E No bus company other than Green Line provides mass transit anywhere in the region.
D Mass transit is a vital community service within the region.
Tina: The desire for wealth is the strongest stimulant to technological innovation. It is not curiosity but both the hope of being rich and the fear of poverty that make inventors prolific. Ellen: The desire to secure advantages is more fundamental than the attempt to gain wealth, which is only one of the manifestations of that desire. And other manifestations of that desire are equally strong motivators of technological innovation.
Tina and Ellen disagree about whether
A there are other motives for technological innovation as strong as those provided by the desire for wealth
B the only purpose of gaining wealth is to secure a more advantageous position
C the desire to avoid poverty motivates the pursuit of technological innovation less effectively than does the desire to secure advantages
D technological innovation is something that is generally appreciated
E curiosity is sometimes as strong a stimulant to technological innovation as is fear of poverty
A there are other motives for technological innovation as strong as those provided by the desire for wealth
Criminologist: Dr. Ashton claims most people are not responsible for the crimes they commit because of the exploitative nature of the economic system in which they live. He alleges there is empirical evidence of this. His argument may be dismissed since it is exactly what one would expect given Dr. Ashton's political views.
Which one of the following exhibits flawed reasoning most similar to the flawed reasoning exhibited by the criminologist's argument?
A Dr. Catalon's case against this proposal should be dismissed. His case proceeded merely by attacking the character of the sponsor of the proposal.
B Dr. Ramirez's argument that a new road should be built downtown is unacceptable. If she is allowed to have a new road built today, tomorrow she will want a new parking lot, then a new mall, and soon the town's beautiful surroundings will be covered with cement.
C Dr. Narayan argues that there are estimates of traffic volumes that show that the proposed new highway is unnecessary. But we would expect such an argument from Dr. Narayan since he generally believes that no new highways should be built. Thus, his argument merits no consideration.
D Dr. Eton's testimony about the footprints found at the crime scene is dubious. She is a close friend of the defendant and so her credibility as a witness at the inquest is suspect.
E Dr. Makeba's claim that the universe is already collapsing is based on her own unusual explanation of cosmic background radiation. However, since this explanation is highly controversial, her claim should not be accepted without further investigation.
C Dr. Narayan argues that there are estimates of traffic volumes that show that the proposed new highway is unnecessary. But we would expect such an argument from Dr. Narayan since he generally believes that no new highways should be built. Thus, his argument merits no consideration.
Injuries to the face sometimes adversely affect vision, but not always. This is not surprising, since the organ of sight is a discrete subpart of the face that can be precisely located, namely, the eyes. With brain injuries, more and more research is showing that the resulting disabilities sometimes involve loss of language skills but frequently do not. This suggests that there is a language component that can be precisely located within the brain.
Which one of the following most accurately describes the argument's method of reasoning?
A inferring from repeated findings that a more general conclusion can be drawn in one case than in another
B drawing a conclusion that is less obvious by drawing an analogy to a case where the corresponding claim is more obvious
C contrasting two cases and using the differences between them to draw a conclusion about the one that is less well understood
D rejecting a hypothesis on the badis of data that more strongly support an alternative hypothesis
E inferring from a claim that one part of an entity has a certain property that the entity as a whole has that property
B drawing a conclusion that is less obvious by drawing an analogy to a case where the corresponding claim is more obvious
Decreasing the populations of certain harmful insects in Arboria would undoubtedly assist current efforts to increase that region's fruit production. Pesticide CC25 is safe for birds and other animals, and is known to be effective against the major insect pests that threaten Arboria's fruit. Thus, if the practice of systematically using CC25 on Arboria's fruit trees is adopted, Arboria's fruit production can be expected to rise soon afterward.
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the grounds for drawing the conclusion in the argument above?
A Most of the fruit growers in Arboria refuse to use any pesticides on their fruit trees.
B If insect populations decrease significantly, then birds that feed on insects and help to control the size of the insect population will leave Arboria.
C The population of some of the insect pests in Arboria will remain constant in spite of the use of CO25.
D Pollination of fruit tree flowers, a necessary step in fruit production, is effected only by certain insects that are highly susceptible to the lethal effects of CC25.
E The populations of affected insect pests could eventually rise again due to the ability of most insect species to develop a resistance to pesticides.
D Pollination of fruit tree flowers, a necessary step in fruit production, is effected only by certain insects that are highly susceptible to the lethal effects of CC25.
An animal's intelligence is not always proportional to the amount of time that animal spends engaging in complex apparently purposeful behavior. For if it were, then insects would be extremely ntelligent animals. But the patterns of complex, seemingly purposeful behavior in which insects are usually engaged are purely instinctive, coded on their nervous systems before birth
A Any animal that usually engages in behavior that is not purely instinctive is extremely intelligent
B Animals most of whose behavior is purely instinctive cannot be intelliqent
C The behavior patterns of insects are among the most complex and apparently purposeful behavior patterns of any animals on Earth.
D Insects are the only animals that usually engage in complex, seemingly purposeful behavior that is purely instinctive
E If some behavior pattern of an animal is purely instinctive. then that behavior pattern is coded or the animal's nervous system before birth
B Animals most of whose behavior is purely instinctive cannot be intelliqent
Philosopher: Behaviorists hold that we can recognize the purpose of an action simply by observation, without any psychological consideration. They identify the purpose of a behavior with the result it brings about. This is a mistake. Though the purpose of an action is the goal to which it is directed, this cannot be identified with the results it brings about. People often fail to achieve the results they expect or desire, or bring about unforeseen results. Which one of the following sentences most accurately expresses the conclusion of the philosopher's argument?
A People often do not bring about their intended goals.
B Behavior cannot be explained in terms of conscious intent.
C Goals and results are identical only for successful agents.
D It is wrong to equate the intent offan action with its outcome.
E Unintended results may confuse the observer of an action.
D It is wrong to equate the intent offan action with its outcome.
Nutritionists have found that a breakfast including milk, fruit, cereal, and Krispy Kakes contains 12 all the nutrients you need to get your day off to a healthy start. This shows that eating Krispy Kakes provides much of the nutrition you need to start your day.
The argument above is most similar in its flawed reasoning to which one of the following arguments?
A The Vicksville Museum is one of several businesses that make up the local tourist industry, and it provides a great deal of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District. Therefore, the local tourist industry as a whole must provide all of the tax revenue needed to operate the School District.
B A typical business in the local tourist industry provides a significant portion of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District. Since the Vicksville Museum is a business in the local tourist industry, it must provide a significant portion of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District.
C The local tourist industry provides all of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District. The Vicksville Museum is one of several businesses that make up the local tourist industry, so it must provide a great deal of the tax revenue needed to operate the School District.
D The Vicksville Museum is one of several businesses that make up the local tourist industry. Many local industries provide a portion of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District. This shows that the Vicksville Museum must provide a portion of the tax revenue needed to operate the School District.
E The local tourist industry provides all of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District. The Vicksville Museum is one of several businesses that make up the local tourist industry, so it must provide a great deal of the tax revenue needed to operate the School District.
E The local tourist industry provides all of the tax revenue needed to operate the Vicksville School District. The Vicksville Museum is one of several businesses that make up the local tourist industry, so it must provide a great deal of the tax revenue needed to operate the School District.
Mathematician: Mathematics is often taught as if the object were simply to transmit a body of detailed information from teacher to student. But I hold that it is more important for teachers to impart an appreciation of the beauty and excitement of mathematics, since this approach has the following long-term effect: when students develop such an appreciation, they will be more motivated to learn the details on their own, which will lead them to take further mathematics courses and ultimately learn much more mathematics than they would if they lacked this appreciation.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the mathematician's reasoning?
A The paramount goal in teaching mathematics should be to maximize the amount of mathematics students will ultimately learn.
B It is no more important for students in a mathematics course to learn a body of detailed information than for them to become motivated to take further mathematics courses.
C. One goal in teaching mathematics should be to teach an appreciation of the beauty and excitement of mathematics.
D. Learning detailed information about mathematics assists students in developing an appreciation of the beauty and excitement of mathematics.
E The more mathematics courses students take, the more those students increase their appreciation of the beauty and excitement of mathematics.
A The paramount goal in teaching mathematics should be to maximize the amount of mathematics students will ultimately learn.
Some argue that because the same product standards will be applied throughout Europe as a result of European economic unification, European goods will become more homogenous. But since unification will enrich the economies of the participating countries, people will have greater incomes and demand a greater variety of goods than they currently do. Therefore, strengthening European economic unity will actually increase the diversity of products made in Europe.
Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
A. New economic opportunities will allow some European companies to produce goods that previously had to be imported.
B. Unified standards for European products will allow companies to streamline production of some goods, so the companies will be able to produce these goods more efficiently.
C. As trade barriers between European countries weaken, the volume of European goods traded within Europe will increase.
D. Increased accessibility to diverse consumers will lead to new opportunities for many European companies to market their stockpiled goods.
E. Weakened national barriers will enable small companies to combine their resources and increase the prices of the goods they produce.
A. New economic opportunities will allow some European companies to produce goods that previously had to be imported.
Laws that are unenforceable should be repealed. After all, a law carries no threat of punishment if it is unenforceable, and clearly, ineffective laws should be repealed.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A Any law that is effective carries the threat of punishment.
B Only laws that are effective are enforceable.
C No law that carries the threat of punishment should be repealed.
D Every law that is both unenforceable and ineffective should be repealed.
E No law that is effective should be repealed.
A Any law that is effective carries the threat of punishment.
Practice is an effective way of learning skills when learners receive feedback on their practice. Since feedback is most effective when it is what educators call contiguous, i.e., near in space and time to the learner's attempts, interactive educational software is usually superior to lecturing and other conventional methods of instruction as a means of helping people learn a skill.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument?
A Skills are learned more easily with the help of interactive software than with methods that are more conventional.
B Practice is an effective means of learning skills only if learners receive feedback on their practice.
C It is not surprising that conventional methods are less effective than interactive software at teaching skills.
D The most effective feedback for learning skills is feedback that is near in space and time to the learner's attempts.
E Interactive educational software, unlike lecturing and other conventional methods of instruction, provides contiguous feedback to learners.
A Skills are learned more easily with the help of interactive software than with methods that are more conventional.
Medical student: Tissue samples from the livers of patients with X, a liver disease, always have the same unusual cell structure, which is never found in patients without some kind of liver disease. This tissue sample does not have that unusual cell structure, so it could not have come from the liver of a patient with disease X or any other kind of liver disease.
|
The flawed reasoning in the medical student's argument is most similar to that in which one of the following?
A Judicial interpretations of a recently passed law are usually closer to the intentions of the legislators who crafted that law than are interpretations of older laws. This particular judicial interpretation is considered to be radical and the law was passed only recently, so the intentions of the legislators who passed the law must also have been considered radical.
B Apples imported from New Zealand always sell better than domestically grown apples. However, consumers are very familiar with domestically grown varieties of apples. Since the apples in this shipment are not from New Zealand and are not a domestically grown variety, these apples will not sell well.
C A certain kind of fungus grows on every lawn that is infested by moles and never grows on lawns that are entirely free of animal pests. This lawn has that fungus growing on it, so we can conclude that it is infested by moles or soon will be.
D A certain kind of fungus grows on every lawn that is infested by moles and never grows on lawns that are entirely free of animal pests. This lawn has that fungus growing on it, so we can conclude that it is infested by moles or soon will be.
E The windows that we install in any house that we build come from reputable manufacturers and are inspected for structural defects. Since this house was built by one of our competitors, its windows are bound to be a poorer quality than those in the house that we built across the street.
D A certain kind of fungus grows on every lawn that is infested by moles and never grows on lawns that are entirely free of animal pests. This lawn has that fungus growing on it, so we can conclude that it is infested by moles or soon will be.
Political philosopher: Some people advocate the general-happiness principle, according to which a government policy is justified if and only if it increases the overall happiness of those affected by it. But since any policy has infinitely many consequences, only a few of them predictable, an accurate estimate of a policy's total impact on happiness cannot be made. Accordingly, any reasonable justification of a government policy should appeal to something other than the general-happiness principle.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most supports the political philosopher's reasoning?
A. The welfare of people should not in every case be identified with their happiness.
B. Principles impractical in their application ought not to be employed.
C. Governmental policies should not be justified in the same way as the actions of individuals.
D. Political principles are acceptable if at least some of the policies they justify also commend themselves to common sense.
E. Any government policy based on unreliable predictions is unlikely to be the most efficient means of attaining the government's objectives.
B. Principles impractical in their application ought not to be employed.
In one study, researchers found that about 60 percent of bats captured in homes or other locations abnormal for bats tested positive for rabies, as compared to only one out of every thousand bats captured flying free outdoors. These findings show that bats found outdoors are quite unlikely to have rabies.
Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
A Very few of the pets that spend most of their time outdoors are bitten by bats.
B Of bats flying free, those with rabies are no easier to capture and test than are bats without rabies.
C None of the tested bats that were captured flying free outdoors were found in locations abnormal for bats.
D Few of the tested bats were found in houses.
E None of the bats captured in abnormal locations were outdoors when caught.
E None of the bats captured in abnormal locations were outdoors when caught.
Many historians theorize that the achievements of some seventeenth-century scientists not only paved the way for the technological advances of following centuries but also signaled a profound transformation of thought about nature. The historians hold that whereas earlier thinkers had considered nature an organic being, these scientists began to think of it in purely mechanical terms. But the belief that there was a radical transformation of this sort did not arise until the twentieth century. Thus, the historians' theory is false.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A.Radical transformations in scientific thinking cannot be recognized as such except in the light of commentary by later generations.
B. No widespread belief that a radical transformation in thought has occurred can arise if no such transformation has actually occurred.
C. No one can participate in a radical transformation of thought about a subject without believing that such a transformation has occurred.
D. The technological advances that followed from seventeenth-century scientific work did not require that nature be thought of in purely mechanical terms.
E. The notion that collective human thought can undergo radical transformations is a product of twentieth-century thinking and was previously unknown.
C. No one can participate in a radical transformation of thought about a subject without believing that such a transformation has occurred.
Mayor Tyler: In 1982 the courthouse that Roseville still needs would have cost $26 million. Now in 1992 the same building is costing the city close to $30 million to build. If the courthouse had been built in 1982 when I first showed how the building would relieve the overcrowding we were experiencing, Roseville would have saved at least $4 million by now. Councillor Simón: Your own financial reports inform us that $26 million in 1982 dollars is equivalent to $37 million in 1992 dollars. Adding that difference to the money Roseville has saved by not having to maintain an underutilized courthouse for ten years, we can only view the delay as a financial boon for Roseville.
A point at issue between Mayor Tyler and Councillor Simón is whether
A Roseville will build a courthouse in 1992
B $37 million in 1992 dollars is equivalent to $26 million in 1982 dollars
C Mayor Tyler is responsible for the city's major financial reports
D Roseville actually needed a new courthouse between 1982 and 1992
E Roseville would have expended $4 million to maintain a courthouse from 1982 to 1992
D Roseville actually needed a new courthouse between 1982 and 1992
Philosopher: Any action that is fair never injures anyone. An action does not injure anyone only if that action is just, and thus every action that is fair must also be just. It follows that, because some merciful actions are just, some merciful actions are fair.
The reasoning in the philosopher's argument is flawed because the argument
A. confuses what is required for fairness with what is sufficient for fairness
B. ignores the possibility that there may be an action that is fair and injures no one but is unjust
C. takes for granted that some actions that injure some parties are unfair to those parties
D.fails to distinguish between actions that are fair to all parties and actions that are just to all parties
E.fails to show the relationship between merciful actions and actions that do not injure anyone
A. confuses what is required for fairness with what is sufficient for fairness
Sometimes individuals must choose between two courses of action: one that most benefits the 6. community and another that most benefits the person maling the decision. Faced with such a choice, individuals tend to choose the course of action most beneficial to themselves. It is therefore a principle of good government to adjust the incentives and disincentives for private individuals so that such choices rarely arise, ensuring as far as possible that what is the best choice for individuals is the best choice for the community.
Which one of the following best illustrates an application of the cited principle of good government?
A In order to escape charges of favoritism, the city government awards the contract for a new courthouse to a different developer from the one who completed the new city hall, even though the contract bids from both developers were the same.
B In order to satisfy a powerful law-and-order group, the legislature rejects a new bill! protecting suspects' rights, despite the bill's popularity among voters in general.
C In order to placate laid-off government workers who have demanded help in acquiring skills necessary for private industry jobs, the government diverts funds from existing social programs to a new job-training program.
D In order to deflect voter attention from a recent increase in the salaries of elected officials, the legislature yotes against a proposal to increase the salaries of appointed officials.
E In order to avoid electricity shortages that will occur unless electricity use in the city significantly decreases, the city government approves an increase in the electricity rate charged to city residents.
E In order to avoid electricity shortages that will occur unless electricity use in the city significantly decreases, the city government approves an increase in the electricity rate charged to city residents.
A recent study found that people who drink green tea daily tend to have lower levels of stress-related hormones compared to those who do not. As a result, the researchers concluded that green tea reduces stress levels.
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the researchers' conclusion?
A. People who drink green tea daily are more likely to engage in regular meditation or yoga than those who do not.
B. The study did not measure the caffeine content of the green tea consumed by participants.
C. Participants who drank green tea daily reported enjoying its taste more than those who drank it occasionally.
D. The participants in the study were not randomly assigned to green tea or non–green tea groups.
E. Green tea contains antioxidants that have been linked to various health benefits.
A. People who drink green tea daily are more likely to engage in regular meditation or yoga than those who do not.
Environmentalist: It takes less energy to make molten glass from recycled glass than from raw materials. Once the recycled glass or raw materials have been turned into molten glass, making bottles from recycled glass follows the same process as making bottles from raw materials. Obviously, soft drink bottlers who make a large percentage of their bottles from recycled glass have significant energy savings. Therefore, by using recycled glass instead of glass made from raw materials, bottlers can lower their costs and benefit the environment at the same time.
Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument relies?
A The process of making bottles from plastic that has been recycled is not significantly more energy efficient than is the process of making bottles from glass that has been recycled.
B The amount of glass that is currently recycled each year is enough to supply the major soft drink bottlers with materials for a large percentage of the glass bottles they make that year.
C Most consumers are not able to distinguish bottles made from recycled glass from glass bottles made from raw materials.
D Purchasing and transport costs are not so much greater for recycled glass than for raw materials that they outweigh the savings in energy costs resulting from the use of recycled glass.
E The process of making molten glass from recycled glass requires fewer steps than does the process of making molten glass from raw materials.
B The amount of glass that is currently recycled each year is enough to supply the major soft drink bottlers with materials for a large percentage of the glass bottles they make that year.
Environmental economist: Many people assume that banning single-use plastic bags will significantly reduce environmental damage. However, studies show that when plastic bags are banned, consumers often switch to paper or cloth bags, which typically require more resources to produce and transport. For example, the carbon footprint of a paper bag is approximately four times that of a standard plastic bag, and cloth bags must be reused hundreds of times before their environmental cost becomes comparable. Therefore, while plastic bag bans may seem environmentally friendly, they often fail to deliver the environmental benefits that policymakers intend.
Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the economist’s argument?
A. Plastic bags have a lower carbon footprint than many commonly used alternatives.
B. Single-use plastic bags should not be banned by policymakers.
C. Plastic bag bans often do not achieve their intended environmental goals.
D. Consumers tend to switch to more resource-intensive alternatives when plastic bags are banned.
E. The environmental impact of cloth and paper bags is often underestimated.
C. Plastic bag bans often do not achieve their intended environmental goals.
Sociologist: A recent study found that students who took handwritten notes during lectures retained significantly more information than those who used laptops. From this, we can conclude that banning laptops in classrooms would lead to improved academic performance among students.
Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the reasoning above?
A. It assumes that students who take notes by hand do not also use laptops during class.
B. It ignores the possibility that students who choose to take handwritten notes differ in other important ways from those who use laptops.
C. It overlooks the fact that some students may not be able to afford laptops.
D. It confuses a correlation between note-taking method and information retention with a correlation between note-taking method and academic performance.
E. It assumes that students will improve their note-taking skills simply by switching from laptops to handwriting.
B. It ignores the possibility that students who choose to take handwritten notes differ in other important ways from those who use laptops.