Strengthen
Curator: Critics have rightly claimed that removing the centuries-old grime from the frescoes of Michelangelo will expose them to acids formed by the combination of water vapor in human breath with pollutants in the air. Notwithstanding this fact, the restoration should continue, for the frescoes in their present condition cannot be seen as they appeared when painted by Michelangelo.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the curator’s reasoning?
A. The decision as to whether an artwork merits restoration or not should depend on its greatness as judged by aesthetic standards alone.
B. An artwork possesses aesthetic value only if there are people who observe and appreciate it.
C. It is acceptable to risk future damage to an artwork if the purpose is to enable it to be appreciated in its original form.
D. It is right to spend large amounts of money on the restoration of an old artwork if this restoration makes the artwork accessible to large numbers of people.
E. A picture that has become encrusted with grime over a long period can no longer be regarded as the same work of art as that painted by the artist.
C. It is acceptable to risk future damage to an artwork if the purpose is to enable it to be appreciated in its original form.
Several companies that make herbal teas containing ginseng assert in their marketing that ginseng counteracts the effects of stress. As a result, many people buy these products hoping to improve their health. Yet no definitive scientific study links ginseng with the relief of stress. Thus, these marketing campaigns make false claims.
The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
A. rejects an argument because of its source without evaluating the argument’s logical strength
B. concludes that a claim is false merely on the grounds that it has not been shown to be true
C. draws an inference on the basis of a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative
D. fails to address the possibility that many people buy herbal teas containing ginseng because they enjoy drinking the tea
E. fails to address the possibility that some ingredients other than ginseng in the herbal teas containing ginseng counteract the effects of stress
B. concludes that a claim is false merely on the grounds that it has not been shown to be true
Film historians have made two major criticisms of Depression-era filmmakers: first, that they were too uncritical of the economic status quo; and second, that they self-indulgently created films reflecting their own dreams and desires. However, these filmmakers made their movies with an eye to profit, and so they provided what their audiences most wanted in a film: a chance to imagine being wealthy enough not to have a care in the world. Thus, the second criticism cannot be accurate.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. To avoid self-indulgence, filmmakers should take a critical stance toward the existing economic system and should allow audiences to form their own personal aspirations.
B. It is unjustified to demand of all filmmakers that their films engage in criticism of the economic status quo.
C. The people who regularly went to movies during the Depression were those likely to have been most satisfied with the economic status quo.
D. Depression-era filmmakers who did not make films for profit could not take radical critical stances toward then-current economic and political issues.
E. It cannot be self-indulgent for a filmmaker to give an audience what it most wants.
E. It cannot be self-indulgent for a filmmaker to give an audience what it most wants.
Technician: Laboratory mice that are used for research aimed at improving human health are usually kept in small cages. Such an environment is neither normal nor healthy for mice. Moreover, the reliability of research using animals is diminished if those animals are not in an environment that is normal for them.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the technician’s statements?
A. The conditions under which laboratory mice are kept are not likely to change in the near future.
B. If laboratory mice were kept under better conditions, it would be appropriate to use them for research aimed at improving human health.
C. Research using laboratory mice that is aimed at improving human health is compromised by the conditions under which the mice are kept.
D. Those who conduct research aimed at improving human health will develop new research techniques.
E. Laboratory mice that are used for research that is not directly related to human health are not usually kept in small cages.
C. Research using laboratory mice that is aimed at improving human health is compromised by the conditions under which the mice are kept.
Often, a product popularly believed to be the best of its type is no better than any other; rather, the product’s reputation, which may be independent of its quality, provides its owner with status. Thus, although there is no harm in paying for status if that is what one wants, one should know that one is paying for prestige, not quality.
Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the argument above?
A. Often, choosing the best job offer is a matter of comparing the undesirable features of the different jobs. Thus, those who choose a job because it has a desirable location should know that they might be unhappy with its hours.
B. Most people have little tolerance for boastfulness. Thus, although one’s friends may react positively when hearing the details of one’s accomplishments, it is unlikely that their reactions are entirely honest.
C. Those beginning a new hobby sometimes quit it because of the frustrations involved in learning a new skill. Thus, although it is fine to try to learn a skill quickly, one is more likely to learn a skill if one first learns to enjoy the process of acquiring it.
D. Personal charm is often confused with virtue. Thus, while there is nothing wrong with befriending a charming person, anyone who does so should realize that a charming friend is not necessarily a good and loyal friend.
E. Many theatrical actors cannot enjoy watching a play because when they watch others, they yearn to be on stage themselves. Thus, although there is no harm in yearning to perform, such performers should, for their own sakes, learn to suppress that yearning.
D. Personal charm is often confused with virtue. Thus, while there is nothing wrong with befriending a charming person, anyone who does so should realize that a charming friend is not necessarily a good and loyal friend.
A computer game publisher has recently released its latest adventure game. The game’s inventive puzzles and compelling plot induce even casual players to become preoccupied with completing it. The game can be purchased from retail outlets or rented for two-day intervals. The publisher offers a rebate equal to the cost of one rental for renters who go on to purchase the game, saving them a significant portion of the purchase price. Since the rate of sales now meets expectations and rentals are exceeding expectations, the publisher predicts that soon sales of the game will also exceed expectations.
Which one of the following, if true, most helps to justify the publisher’s prediction?
A. The game can be purchased directly from the publisher as well as from retailers.
B. It takes several weeks for most players to complete the game.
C. The publisher’s games are among the most popular computer games on the market.
D. Most people who complete the game do not play it extensively afterward.
E. Some people buy and complete the game and then give it away to a friend.
B. It takes several weeks for most players to complete the game.
Journalist: A book claiming that a new drug has dangerous side effects has recently been criticized by a prominent physician. However, the physician is employed by the company that manufactures that drug, and hence probably has personal reasons to deny that the drug is dangerous. Therefore, the critique does not provide legitimate grounds to reject the book’s claims about the drug’s side effects.
The reasoning in the journalist’s argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following grounds?
A. It fails to address adequately the possibility that the critique of the book called into question other claims made in the book in addition to the claim that the drug has dangerous side effects.
B. It takes for granted that anyone even remotely associated with a company that manufactures a drug is unable to fairly weigh evidence concerning possible dangerous side effects of that drug.
C. It overlooks the possibility that the author of the book was biased for personal reasons in favor of the claim that the drug has dangerous side effects.
D. It fails to address adequately the possibility that someone who has personal reasons to deny a claim may nonetheless provide legitimate grounds for denying that claim.
E. It overlooks the possibility that even if a critique does not provide legitimate grounds to reject a claim, this failure need not be the result of any personal biases of the author.
D. It fails to address adequately the possibility that someone who has personal reasons to deny a claim may nonetheless provide legitimate grounds for denying that claim.
Anyone who knows Ellsworth knows that he is bursting with self-righteousness, touting the idealism of his generation over the greed of the previous generation. So no one who knows him will be surprised that Ellsworth is offended by the suggestions in the media that he has engaged in unethical business practices.
The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. Everyone suspects self-righteous people of being, in actuality, unethical.
B. Ellsworth has been accused of unethical business practices before.
C. Hypocrites often hide behind righteous indignation.
D. Ellsworth is in fact innocent of all wrongdoing.
E. Everyone expects self-righteous people to be easily offended.
E. Everyone expects self-righteous people to be easily offended.
Over the last few decades, public outcries against pollution have brought about stricter regulations of emissions. The cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago now have greatly improved air quality. This would not have happened without these stricter regulations.
Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?
A. In the city with the worst air pollution today, the air quality is better than it was 30 years ago.
B. No city has worse air pollution today than it did 30 years ago.
C. Most of the public outcries against pollution came from people in the cities that had the most polluted air.
D. The most polluted cities today are not the cities that were the most polluted 30 years ago.
E. Public criticism led to an improvement in the air quality of the cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago.
E. Public criticism led to an improvement in the air quality of the cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago.
Sarah: When commercial fishing boats with permits to fish for certain species accidentally catch a type of fish for which they have no permit, the latter must be thrown back. This is a very wasteful practice because many, if not most, of the rejected fish do not survive. Fishing permits should therefore be altered so that fishers can keep the fish caught accidentally.
Amar: Making it legal to keep those fish would probably lead to a lot more “accidents.”
The technique Amar uses in responding to Sarah’s argument is to
A. question whether Sarah’s recommendation can be put into practice
B. point out that Sarah used a crucial term in two distinct senses
C. allude to a factor that supposedly strengthens the case for Sarah’s recommendation
D. contend that Sarah’s recommendation has an important negative consequence
E. maintain that Sarah overlooks important lessons from past policies
D. contend that Sarah’s recommendation has an important negative consequence
The conventional view is that asteroids strike the earth at random locations, thereby randomly affecting various aspects of the earth’s evolution. One iconoclastic geophysicist claims instead that asteroids have struck the earth through a highly organized natural process. Cited as evidence is the unusual pattern of impact craters that form a halo-like swath across the Northern Hemisphere. There is a consensus that these craters appeared at the end of the Cretaceous period, followed by a mass extinction of much land and ocean life.
Which one of the following, if true, would most help to support the iconoclastic geophysicist’s claim?
A. Several asteroid strikes within a short period could produce both volcanic activity that warms the oceans and atmospheric debris that blocks sunlight, and such changes could cause mass extinctions.
B. If asteroids repeatedly pummel the same spots, the beating may affect the flow of molten rock inside the earth, which would affect the degree to which continents drift around the earth’s surface.
C. The impact craters that form a halo-like swath across the Northern Hemisphere were the result of a single cluster of meteors striking the earth.
D. Lumpy masses within the earth cause gravitational interactions with approaching asteroids that force them into specific orbits before impact.
E. No similar pattern of impact craters was created during any other period of the earth’s history.
D. Lumpy masses within the earth cause gravitational interactions with approaching asteroids that force them into specific orbits before impact.
A study found that when rating the educational value of specific children’s television shows parents tend to base their judgements primarily on how much they themselves enjoyed the shows, and rarely took into account the views of educational psychologists as to the shows’ educational value. Accordingly, if the psychologists’ views are sound, parents have little reason to trust their own ratings of the educational value of children’s television shows.
The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
A. relies on a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative of the population with which the conclusion is concerned
B. takes for granted that parents do not enjoy the same sort of children’s television shows that children themselves enjoy
C. takes for granted that the educational value of a television show should be the only consideration for a parent trying to decide whether a child should watch the show
D. fails to rule out the possibility that parents’ ratings of the shows based on their own enjoyment coincide closely with the educational psychologists’ views of the shows’ educational values
E. takes for granted that educational psychologists are the only people who can judge the educational value of children’s television shows with a high degree of accuracy
D. fails to rule out the possibility that parents’ ratings of the shows based on their own enjoyment coincide closely with the educational psychologists’ views of the shows’ educational values
Ethicist: Only when we know a lot about the events that led to an action are we justified in praising or blaming a person for that action—as we sometimes are. We must therefore reject Tolstoy’s rash claim that if we knew a lot about the events leading up to any action, we would cease to regard that action as freely performed.
Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the ethicist’s argument to be properly drawn?
A. People should not be regarded as subject to praise or blame for actions that were caused by conditions beyond their control.
B. Whether an act is one for which the person doing it is genuinely responsible is not determined by how much information others possess about that act.
C. We can be justified in praising or blaming a person for an action only when we regard that action as freely performed.
D. The responsibility a person bears for an action is not a matter of degree; however, our inclination to blame or praise whoever performed the action varies with the amount of information available.
E. If we do not know much about the events leading up to any given action, we will regard that action as freely performed.
C. We can be justified in praising or blaming a person for an action only when we regard that action as freely performed.
Every delegate to the convention is a party member. Some delegates to the convention are government officials, and each government official who is at the convention is a speaker at the convention, as well.
If the statements above are true, then which one of the following statements must be true?
A. Every party member at the convention is a delegate to the convention.
B. At least some speakers at the convention are neither delegates nor party members.
C. At least some speakers at the convention are delegates to the convention.
D. All speakers at the convention are government officials.
E. Every government official at the convention is a party member.
C. At least some speakers at the convention are delegates to the convention.
If squirrels eat from a bird feeder, it will not attract many birds. However, squirrels eat from a bird feeder only if it lacks a protective cover. So a bird feeder will not attract many birds if it does not have a protective cover.
The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?
A. If a tire’s pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely, and if a tire wears out prematurely, a likely cause is that the pressure was too low. So if a car owner checks the tire pressure regularly, the tires will not wear out prematurely.
B. If a tire’s pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low only if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. So a tire will wear out prematurely if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly.
C. Tires wear out prematurely if car owners neglect to check the tire pressure regularly. Unless car owners are unaware of this fact, they check the tire pressure regularly. So car owners need to be made aware of the consequences of neglecting to check the tire pressure.
D. If a tire’s pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. Therefore, if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly, a tire will wear out prematurely.
E. If a tire’s pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But it will also wear out prematurely if it is often driven on gravel roads. Therefore, if a tire is often driven on gravel roads, keeping its pressure from becoming too low will not help it to last long.
B. If a tire’s pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low only if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. So a tire will wear out prematurely if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly.
Dried parsley should never be used in cooking, for it is far less tasty and healthful than fresh parsley is.
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most clearly helps to justify the argument above?
A. Fresh ingredients should be used in cooking whenever possible.
B. Only the tastiest ingredients should ever be used in cooking.
C. Ingredients that should never be used in cooking are generally neither tasty nor healthful.
D. Parsley that is not both tasty and healthful should never be used in cooking.
E. In cooking, dried ingredients are inferior to fresh ingredients.
B. Only the tastiest ingredients should ever be used in cooking.
Studies have found that human tears contain many of the same hormones that the human body produces in times of emotional stress. Hence, shedding tears removes significant quantities of these hormones from the body. Therefore, crying must have the effect of reducing emotional stress.
The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument
A. overlooks the possibility that if crying has a tendency to reduce emotional stress, this tendency might arise because of something other than the shedding of tears
B. confuses a condition that is required for the production of a given phenomenon with a condition that in itself would be sufficient to cause the production of that phenomenon
C. fails to adequately address the possibility that, even if one phenomenon causally contributes to a second phenomenon, the second phenomenon may causally influence the first as well
D. fails to adequately address the possibility that, even if one phenomenon causally contributes to a second phenomenon, the second phenomenon may causally influence the first as well
E. takes for granted that because certain substances are present whenever a condition occurs, those substances are a cause of that condition
E. takes for granted that because certain substances are present whenever a condition occurs, those substances are a cause of that condition
If a wig has any handmade components, it is more expensive than one with none. Similarly, a made-to-measure wig ranges from medium-priced to expensive. Handmade foundations are never found on wigs that do not use human hair. Furthermore, any wig that contains human hair should be dry-cleaned. So all made-to-measure wigs should be dry-cleaned.
The conclusion of the argument follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. Any wig whose price falls in the medium-priced to expensive range has a handmade foundation.
B. If a wig’s foundation is handmade, then it is more expensive than one whose foundation is not handmade.
C. A wig that has any handmade components should be dry-cleaned.
D. If a wig’s foundation is handmade, then its price is at least in the medium range.
E. Any wig that should be dry-cleaned has a foundation that is handmade.
A. Any wig whose price falls in the medium-priced to expensive range has a handmade foundation.
If there are any inspired musical performances in the concert, the audience will be treated to a good show. But there will not be a good show unless there are sophisticated listeners in the audience, and to be a sophisticated listener one must understand one’s musical roots.
If all of the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?
A. If there are no sophisticated listeners in the audience, then there will be no inspired musical performances in the concert.
B. No people who understand their musical roots will be in the audience if the audience will not be treated to a good show.
C. If there will be people in the audience who understand their musical roots, then at least one musical performance in the concert will be inspired.
D. The audience will be treated to a good show unless there are people in the audience who do not understand their musical roots.
E. If there are sophisticated listeners in the audience, then there will be inspired musical performances in the concert.
A. If there are no sophisticated listeners in the audience, then there will be no inspired musical performances in the concert.
Radio producer: Our failure to attract new listeners over the past several years has forced us to choose between devoting some airtime to other, more popular genres of music, and sticking with classical music that appeals only to our small but loyal audience. This audience, however loyal, did not generate enough advertising revenue for us to pay our bills, so if we appeal to them alone, our station risks going out of business. We should not take that risk. We should, therefore, devote some airtime to other, more popular genres of music.
Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to that used by the radio producer?
A. We should either buy blinds for the windows or make full-length curtains. Blinds would be very expensive to purchase. Thus, if cost is our greatest concern, we should make curtains.
B. We should either make curtains for the windows or buy blinds. Since the windows are not standard sizes, if we buy blinds we will have to special order them. Since we do not have time to wait for special orders, we should make the curtains.
C. For the living room windows, we can make curtains or valances or both. We want to have privacy; and while curtains provide privacy, valances do not. So we should make curtains but not valances.
D. Since we have very little fabric, we will have to either buy more, or make valances instead of curtains. However, if we use this fabric to make valances, then we will have to buy blinds. Since it would be hard to buy fabric that matches what we already have, we should buy blinds.
E. We should either buy blinds or make curtains for the windows. If we buy blinds but do not make valances, the windows will look bare. We should not have bare windows. So if we do not make the curtains, we should make the valances.
B. We should either make curtains for the windows or buy blinds. Since the windows are not standard sizes, if we buy blinds we will have to special order them. Since we do not have time to wait for special orders, we should make the curtains.
Eight large craters run in a long straight line across a geographical region. Although some of the craters contain rocks that have undergone high-pressure shocks characteristic of meteorites slamming into Earth, these shocks could also have been caused by extreme volcanic events. Because of the linearity of the craters, it is very unlikely that some of them were caused by volcanoes and others were caused by meteorites. Thus, since the craters are all different ages, they were probably caused by volcanic events rather than meteorites.
Which one of the following statements, if true, would most strengthen the argument?
A. A similar but shorter line of craters that are all the same age is known to have been caused by volcanic activity.
B. No known natural cause would likely account for eight meteorite craters of different ages forming a straight line.
C. There is no independent evidence of either meteorites or volcanic activity in the region where the craters are located.
D. There is no independent evidence of a volcanic event strong enough to have created the high-pressure shocks that are characteristic of meteorites slamming into Earth.
E. No known single meteor shower has created exactly eight impact craters that form a straight line.
B. No known natural cause would likely account for eight meteorite craters of different ages forming a straight line.
Professor Riley characterized the university president’s speech as inflammatory and argued that it was therefore inappropriate. However, Riley has had a long-standing feud with the president, and so we should not conclude that her speech was inflammatory solely on the basis of Riley’s testimony. Therefore, unless there are independent reasons to deem the president’s speech inflammatory, it is not true that her speech was inappropriate.
The argument is flawed in that it
A. takes for granted that the speech could not be inappropriate if it was not inflammatory
B. fails to adequately address the possibility that inflammatory speeches may be appropriate for some audiences
C. favors the university president’s side in a dispute simply because of the president’s privileged standing
D. concludes that Riley’s claim is false merely on the grounds that Riley has something to gain if the claim is accepted as true
E. fails to adequately address the possibility that Riley’s animosity toward the university president is well founded
A. takes for granted that the speech could not be inappropriate if it was not inflammatory
Several critics have claimed that any contemporary poet who writes formal poetry—poetry that is rhymed and metered—is performing a politically conservative act. This is plainly false. Consider Molly Peacock and Marilyn Hacker, two contemporary poets whose poetry is almost exclusively formal and yet who are themselves politically progressive feminists.
The conclusion drawn above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
A. No one who is a feminist is also politically conservative.
B. No poet who writes unrhymed or unmetered poetry is politically conservative.
C. No one who is politically progressive is capable of performing a politically conservative act.
D. Anyone who sometimes writes poetry that is not politically conservative never writes poetry that is politically conservative.
E. The content of a poet’s work, not the work’s form, is the most decisive factor in determining what political consequences, if any, the work will have.
C. No one who is politically progressive is capable of performing a politically conservative act.
Scientist: Some critics of public funding for this research project have maintained that only if it can be indicated how the public will benefit from the project is continued public funding for it justified. If the critics were right about this, then there would not be the tremendous public support for the project that even its critics acknowledge.
If the scientist’s claims are true, which one of the following must also be true?
A. The benefits derived from the research project are irrelevant to whether or not its funding is justified.
B. Continued public funding for the research project is justified.
C. Public support for the research project is the surest indication of whether or not it is justified.
D. There is tremendous public support for the research project because it can be indicated how the public will benefit from the project.
E. That a public benefit can be indicated is not a requirement for the justification of the research project’s continued public funding.
E. That a public benefit can be indicated is not a requirement for the justification of the research project’s continued public funding.
A corporation created a new division. To staff it, applicants were rigorously screened and interviewed. Those selected were among the most effective, efficient, and creative workers that the corporation had ever hired. Thus, the new division must have been among the most effective, efficient, and creative divisions the corporation had ever created.
The flawed pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?
A. In order to obtain the best players for its country’s Olympic team, a committee reviewed the performance of its country’s teams. After reviewing statistics and reading reports, the committee chose one player from each of the six best teams, thus assuring that the six best players in the country had been chosen.
B. Several salespeople were given incentives to recruit the largest number of new customers in one month. To monitor the incentive program, the boss interviewed one of the salespeople and found that the salesperson had already exceeded the minimum goals of the program. Thus the incentive program was indeed effective.
C. A law firm decided to add a department devoted to family law. To obtain the best employees it could, the firm studied the credentials and composition of several other firms well known to have successful staffs working in family law. Eventually, the firm hired a staff of new lawyers and support personnel having training and aptitudes as much like those of the studied firms as possible. Thus the law firm must have created one of the best family-law departments.
D. To put together this year’s two All-Star Teams, the best players in the league were selected. Half of them were put on Team One, and half were put on Team Two. Since each player on the two teams was one of the best players in the league this year, it follows that the two All-Star Teams are the two best teams this year.
E. Various schools chose teams of students to compete in a debate tournament. Each school’s team presented a position and rebutted the others’ positions. After the initial scores were in, the ten top teams competed against each other. Since one team eventually emerged with the highest average score, it was clearly the best team.
D. To put together this year’s two All-Star Teams, the best players in the league were selected. Half of them were put on Team One, and half were put on Team Two. Since each player on the two teams was one of the best players in the league this year, it follows that the two All-Star Teams are the two best teams this year.