Encoding
Encoding ______ is much, much more important than encoding ______.
quality; quantity
Describe the Imagery Effect and how it helps encoding.
Pictures (viewed or imagined) are better remembered than words.
What is a Tip-of-the-Tongue state and what function of long-term memory fails when it happens?
Semantic information that you’ve encoded but can’t retrieve (retrieval failure).
What is Encoding Specificity and how does it improve retrieval? Can you give an example of it?
Encoding Specificity: matching the encoding context with the context at retrieval enhances recall of the memory.
Ex: encoding information underwater vs on land or encoding information in a quiet room vs a noisy room
How are memories stored? In other words, can you target one specific brain region to "erase" a memory?
No, memories are stored in a distributed manner
What is Maintenance Rehearsal versus Elaborative Rehearsal, and which gives you a better chance of encoding information into long-term memory?
Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating without any consideration for meaning or making connections with other information.
- Better for short-term memory, not long-term memory
Elaborative Rehearsal: thinking of the meaning and/or making connections to other information
- Better chance of encoding into long-term memory
How do organization, schemas, and scripts help with encoding? What are each of these in relation to encoding?
Organization: encoding in an organized manner
Schemas: knowledge about some aspect of the environment
Scripts: a type of schema; our knowledge of the sequence of actions that usually occur
Having organizational schemas and scripts in which you can place new information makes it easier to remember.
Retrieval is most likely to fail when you don’t have a good ______ ___.
retrieval cue
What is State-Dependent Learning and how does it improve retrieval? Can you give an example of it?
State-Dependent Learning: when we encode information, we also encode the our internal state (mood, state of awareness, etc.). Matching the internal state at encoding with your internal state at retrieval enhances recall of the memory.
Ex: encoding information while sad vs happy leads to better retrieval when in the same state; drunk vs sober
What is Memory Consolidation and what are the two types of it? Explain each one and how fast they happen.
Memory Consolidation: the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption.
Synaptic Consolidation: (minutes to hours) repeated activity can strengthen the synapse between the two neurons via: structural changes, greater neurotransmitter release, increased rates of firing
Systems Consolidation: (months to years) the process where memories are transferred from the hippocampus to the neocortex for stable, long-term storage
What are the four levels of processing according to the Levels of processing theory? Which gives the best chance of encoding information into long-term memory?
Incidental Encoding: unintentionally encoding information
Shallow Processing: structural processing/physical qualities
Slightly Less Shallow Processing: phonemic processing/how it sounds
Deeper Processing: semantic/meaning processing (best for long-term encoding)
What is Episodic Memory Trace and what is it a natural byproduct of?
Bonus: what theory best explains episodic memory trace and why?
Episodic memory trace (memory of what, where, and when) is an automatic by-product of cognitive processes.
Survival Processing: thinking about how something will help you survive is a very deep encoding task, which results in better encoding
The best retrieval cues are ____ generated.
What is Transfer-Appropriate Processing and how does it improve retrieval? Can you give an example of it?
Transfer-Appropriate Processing: matching the processing (level) at encoding with the processing (level) at retrieval enhances recall of the memory.
Describe the Standard Model of Systems Consolidation?
Bonus: how does it explain temporally graded amnesia
After forming a memory, it is distributed in a neural network connected to the hippocampus, which eventually does not involve the hippocampus as the network strengthens.
Graded Amnesia: corresponds to the degree of cortico-cortical connections at the time of injury. (Newer memories are not as well distributed as older memories).
We can use our ____-term memory to help better encode new ____-term memories.
long; long
______ encoding leads to better memory than ______ encoding.
Active; passive
Matching ______ conditions to ______ conditions increases the likelihood of retrieval.
retrieval; encoding
If a person is doing an encoding task and is asked to encode words for meaning, will they perform better on a rhyming task or a meaning task during retrieval?
Meaning task
Describe the Multiple Trace Theory of Systems Consolidation?
Hippocampus remains involved in retrieval of consolidated (remote) episodic memories
According to the self-referencing effect, relating something to ______ or to something relevant to ____ will help you remember it.
yourself; you
What are the Generation Effect and Retrieval Practice and how are they examples of active encoding?
Generation Effect: you remember information you generate yourself better than information you just read.
Retrieval Practice: helps you encode the material more deeply, so you remember it better over time (reduces forgetting)
What are the three important ways to match retrieval and encoding that result in the best retrieval?
Encoding Specificity, State-Dependent Learning, Transfer-Appropriate Processing
What things should be matched during encoding to offer the best chances of successful retrieval?
Context, Internal state, and Cognitive Processing
What is Reconsolidation and how can it be used to "erase" memories.
Reconsolidation: retrieved memories become labile/fragile and need to be consolidated again.
Injecting a protein blocker before memory consolidation (or reconsolidation) can effectively prevent the memory from being stored, thus "erasing" it.