Psychostimulants
What are the two main neurotransmitters that psychostimulants increase in the brain’s reward pathway?
What are dopamine and norepinephrine
What kind of reinforcement drives people to keep using opioids after their first few doses?
What is positive reinforcement
Unlike stimulants and opioids, these two responses to benzodiazepines are often weak, despite the drugs' high dependence potential.
What are reinforcement and craving?
Which serotonin receptor is primarily responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of classic psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin?
What is the 5-HT₂A receptor
Which part of the brain is most associated with the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants?
What is the nucleus accumbens
Why does opioid use continue even after the pleasurable effects fade over time?
What is negative reinforcement
These two adaptations to benzodiazepines develop readily, creating a paradox since the drug class doesn't strongly drive drug-seeking behavior
What are tolerance and physical dependence?
Why do psychedelics produce little or no activation of the brain’s dopamine-based reward system?
What is because psychedelics act mainly on serotonin receptors
Psychostimulants increase synaptic dopamine by blocking what type of transporter?
What is the dopamine reuptake transporter (DAT)
What biological change causes users to need higher opioid doses over time?
What is receptor desensitization and downregulation
These two phenomena that occur after stopping benzodiazepines significantly influence long-term use patterns and make discontinuation challenging.
What are withdrawal and rebound?
Why does tolerance to psychedelics develop so rapidly?
What is downregulation and desensitization of 5-HT₂A receptors after just one or two uses
What is the difference between tolerance and sensitization in response to psychostimulants?
What is tolerance is a decreased response with repeated use, while sensitization is an increased response, especially for craving and locomotor activity.
Why does tolerance to euphoria develop faster than tolerance to respiratory depression, and why is that dangerous?
How does physical dependence differ from psychological craving in opioid use disorder?
This term describes the return of original symptoms at greater intensity after benzodiazepine cessation, distinguishing it from withdrawal.
What is rebound anxiety (or rebound phenomena)?
Why do psychedelics, despite rapid tolerance, have low addiction potential — and what does this reveal about the neurobiology of addiction?
What is that addiction depends on dopamine-mediated reinforcement, not just receptor tolerance.
According to the incentive sensitization theory of addiction, how do “wanting” and “liking” change with chronic stimulant use?
What is that ‘wanting’ becomes hypersensitive even as ‘liking’ diminishes
How does physical dependence differ from psychological craving in opioid use disorder?
What is the difference between physiological adaptation and learned motivation
This paradox of benzodiazepine pharmacology reveals that this aspect of addiction isn't always necessary for developing physical dependence.
What is strong reinforcement (or reward/euphoria)?
How are psychedelics being studied to help people with addiction and mental health disorders?
What is through controlled, therapeutic dosing of psilocybin or MDMA