Benzodiazepines
Reinforcement: What neurotransmitter system do benzodiazepines enhance to produce calming and anxiety-reducing effects?
What is the GABA system, which increases inhibitory signaling in the brain?
Reinforcement: Which neurotransmitters drive the strong reinforcement and craving produced by psychostimulants?
What are dopamine and norepinephrine, which heighten reward and alertness?
Reinforcement: Which receptor do opioids activate to produce euphoria and dopamine release?
What is the μ-opioid receptor?
Reinforcement: Why do psychedelics have low reward and reinforcement potential?
Because they don’t significantly activate dopamine pathways.
Tolerance: What causes benzodiazepine tolerance to develop over time?
What is GABA receptor downregulation, which reduces the drug’s effect with repeated use?
Tolerance: What cellular change causes decreased euphoria with repeated stimulant use?
What is dopamine receptor downregulation?
Tolerance: Why do opioid users need increasing doses over time?
Because μ-opioid receptors become desensitized, reducing the drug’s effect.
Tolerance: What explains the rapid tolerance that develops with psychedelics?
What is 5-HT₂A receptor downregulation after one or two uses?
Dependence: Why does stopping benzodiazepines suddenly cause anxiety and hyperexcitability?
What is withdrawal, due to dependence and compensatory overactivity in excitatory pathways?
Dependence: Why is dependence on psychostimulants mostly psychological rather than physical?
Because withdrawal causes dysphoria and fatigue, not severe physiological symptoms.
Dependence: What drives continued opioid use even when the “high” fades?
What is withdrawal avoidance?
Dependence: Why don’t psychedelics cause physical dependence or withdrawal?
Because they don’t alter homeostatic or reward systems long-term.
Mechanism: Are GABAergic mechanisms necessary or sufficient for addiction?
What is necessary but not sufficient, since GABA alone doesn’t strongly activate dopamine reward circuits?
Mechanism: Which mechanism is both necessary and sufficient for stimulant addiction?
What is dopamine reinforcement signaling?
Mechanism: Which systems are both necessary and sufficient for opioid addiction?
What are the μ-opioid and dopamine reward systems?
Mechanism: Are serotonergic mechanisms necessary or sufficient for addiction?
What is neither necessary nor sufficient, since they don’t drive compulsive reinforcement.
Neurobiology: What neurobiological change best explains benzodiazepine dependence?
What is receptor downregulation and allostatic imbalance in inhibitory control systems?
Neurobiology: What brain changes sustain compulsive use in stimulant addiction?
What are D2 receptor loss and impaired prefrontal inhibitory control?
Neurobiology: Which neurobiological changes increase relapse risk in opioid addiction?
What are receptor downregulation and HPA axis dysregulation?
Neurobiology: What neurobiological features explain psychedelics’ low addiction potential?
What are 5-HT₂A downregulation and preserved inhibitory control in the prefrontal cortex?