Cognitive Foundations
What is cognitive psychology and what does it study?
The scientific study of mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving.
What is an algorithm and how is it used in problem solving?
A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution.
What are the three parts of the information-processing model?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval.
What are the three main ways of measuring memory?
Recall, recognition, and relearning.
What role does the hippocampus play in memory?
It helps form new explicit memories (episodic and semantic).
Define thinking in cognitive terms.
The manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions.
Define a heuristic and explain how it differs from an algorithm.
A mental shortcut that allows quick problem solving, but doesn’t guarantee a correct solution.
What is parallel processing and how does it affect memory?
Multi-tasking - Processing many aspects of a stimulus simultaneously; increases efficiency in perception and memory.
Compare explicit and implicit memories.
Explicit: conscious recall (facts, experiences); Implicit: unconscious retention (skills, conditioned responses).
How does the cerebellum relate to memory?
It processes implicit memories, especially those related to conditioned responses.
What are mental images and how do they aid cognition?
Mental representations of objects or events; they help in memory, learning, and problem solving.
What is the availability heuristic? Give an example.
Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind; e.g., fearing plane crashes after news reports.
Define working memory and how it functions.
A newer understanding of short-term memory that actively processes and manipulates information.
List and describe the types of implicit memories.
Procedural (skills), Classically conditioned responses, Primed responses (activation of associations).
What kind of memories involve the amygdala?
Emotional memories, especially fear-related ones and flashbulb memories.
Explain the difference between concepts and prototypes.
Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects; prototypes are the best or most typical examples of a concept.
Explain the representative heuristic with an example.
Judging likelihood based on how well something fits a prototype; e.g., assuming someone is a librarian because they're quiet and love books.
What are iconic and echoic memory and how long do they last?
Iconic: visual (lasts ~0.5 seconds); Echoic: auditory (lasts ~3-4 seconds).
What are three effortful processing strategies that improve memory?
Chunking, mnemonics, and hierarchies
What is the function of the basal ganglia in implicit memory?
It is involved in storing procedural memories, such as skills and habits.
Contrast deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning with examples.
Deductive: general to specific (e.g., all men are mortal → Socrates is mortal). Inductive: specific to general (e.g., I see 3 black crows → all crows are black).
Discuss how heuristics can lead to cognitive biases or errors in judgment.
Heuristics simplify thinking but can lead to overgeneralization, stereotyping, or ignoring actual probabilities.
Describe the difference between shallow processing and deep processing and their effects on memory retention.
Shallow: basic encoding like appearance; Deep: meaningful encoding like semantics; deep processing leads to better retention.
List and describe the types of explicit memories.
Episodic (personal experiences), semantic (facts and knowledge), prospective (remembering to do future tasks).
Define flashbulb memories and explain how emotion affects their formation.
Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events; emotions trigger hormone activity that enhances memory formation.