Carbohydrate metabolism
What are the three main stages of glucose metabolism?
Glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport train are the three main stages of glucose metabolism.
What are the two main options for how the body uses or handles proteins?
The body can either use proteins for their intended functions or burn them for energy.
Which mechanism of heat transfer is always a form of heat loss in the body?
Evaporation is always an example of heat loss. Sweating is an example of evaporation in the human body.
Which part of the brain acts as the main control center for thermoregulation?
In which part of the cell does glycolysis occur, and what are the net products of this process from one molecule of glucose?
Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol. The net products from one molecule of glucose are 2 ATP and 2 NADH+ 2H+
What is the key consideration in protein metabolism related to the amino group?
List two mechanisms of heat gain and two mechanisms of heat loss that the body can use in thermoregulation.
Heat gain mechanisms: metabolic waste heat and radiation
Heat loss mechanisms: vasodilation of blood vessels and convection
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What are the inputs and outputs of the citric acid cycle, and where does this process take place?
The inputs of the citric acid cycle are pyruvate. The outputs are 2 ATP, 2 FADH2 and 6 NADH+ H+. The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria.
What are keto acids, and what role do they play in metabolic pathways?
Keto acids are structures that vary and feed into metabolic pathways.
When a body temperature is too high, which physiological responses occur to promote heat loss, and how do they work?
Some physiological responses can be:
Vasodilation- increases blood flow to the skin; more heat lost to environment
Sweating- evaporative cooling removes heat
Decrease muscle activity- reduces metabolic heat gain
Behavioral changes- changing clothes, seeking shade
During cold exposure, how does brown adipose tissue help generate heat, and why is it effective compared to white adipose tissue?
Brown adipose tissue contain many mitochondria and dense blood vessels. It produces heat by non- shivering thermogenesis (uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation so energy is released as heat instead of ATP). This makes it more efficient than white fat, which mainly stores energy rather than actively producing heat.
Explain the role of NADH and FADH2 in carbohydrate metabolism, and how many ATP molecules are produced from each of these molecules during the electron transport chain?
NADH and FADH2 are electron carriers that transport electrons to the electron transport train. Each NADH molecule produces 3 ATP, and each FADH2 molecule produces 2 ATP.
How do type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes relate to protein metabolism?
Type 1 diabetes is associated with ketoacidosis due to the uncontrolled overproduction of ketone bodies. The 2 diabetes is linked to sensitivity to insulin.
If a person is exposed to extreme cold, explain how the hypothalamic center, heat- loss center, and heat- promoting center coordinate to defend body temperature.
The hypothalamic center detects low temperature. Heat-loss center activity decreases, less vasodilation and less sweating. Heat- promoting center activity increases, vasoconstriction, shivering thermogenesis, non shivering thermogenesis, and behavioral changes.
Explain why someone with hyperthermia shows symptoms of heavy sweating and dehydration, while someone with a febrile fever may shiver first before sweating.
Hyperthermia is caused by environment or exertion. When the hypothalamic point is normal, but the body overheats -> it responds with sweating, vasodilation, and dehydration.
Febrile fever is when immune chemicals reset the hypothalamic point higher, making the body feel “too cold” in the beginning causing shivers. Once fever breaks, the point drops again-> introducing sweating and vasodilation.
Starting with one molecule of glucose, calculate. The total number of ATP molecules produced through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.
The total number of ATP molecules produced from one molecule of glucose is 32 ATP.
What is gluconeogenesis, and which hormones stimulate this process?
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non- carbohydrate precursors. It is stimulated by cortisol and glucagon.
How is hyperthermia different from a febrile fever?
Why is a heat stroke more dangerous that either, based on the body’s ability to sweat and regulate temperature?
Hyperthermia is being too hot due to environment or overexertion; body responds with sweating and dehydration. Febrile fever raises hypothalamic set point causing shivering and heat gain until new set point is reached, later sweating when set point returns to normal.
A heat stroke is dangerous because the body’s core temp is around 104 degrees, CNS dysfunctions, and your body does not sweat. The body’s core temp is not allowed to cool itself through evaporation, leading to rapid organ damage.
A construction worker collapses on a hot day. His body temperature is at 105 degrees Fahrenheit, he is confused, and he is no longer sweating.
What thermoreulatory problem is this?
Why is the absence of sweating especially dangerous?
Which immediate interventions are most important to prevent further damage?
Thermoregulatory problem: Heat stroke
The absence of sweating is causing his body temperature to rise because the body cannot evaporate and cool itself down properly.
Interventions such as ice water, and fluid resuscitation can help prevent further damage and restore circulation to his body.