This common zoonotic infection has the reservoir of domestic farm animals.
Anthrax
These two leukocytes release chemokines and initiate inflammatory events.
Basophils & Mast cells
Humoral immunity is also known as ____________ immunity. It involves _________ lymphocytes and is effective against ________________.
antibody-mediated immunity
B lymphocytes
extracellular pathogens
Type II hypersensitivity involves __ of __ by the antibodies:__ and __.
Involves complement-assisted destruction (lysis) of foreign cells by antibodies IgG and IgM.
Immunotherapy is a type of passive immunity which is a type of artificial immunity. Immunotherapy is giving Abs to patient; immediate but short term protection.
This type of virulence factor is made of LPS & Teichoic Acids.
Endotoxins
Exotoxins - made from small proteins
Where do B cells and T cells go to mature?
B cells - bone marrow
T cells - thymus
State the antibody functions.
Opsonization - entice macrophage
Neutralization - block pathogen receptors
Complement fixation - lyse bacterial cells
Agglutination - clump and act like glue
Toxin binding - blocks receptors
What disease is caused by developing hypersensitivity to own cells in which autoantibodies, T cells, or both, mount an abnormal attack against self antigens. List the possible causes of malfunction.
Autoimmunity
Causes of malfunction:
Lost ability to determine self vs nonself
Mutations to TCR and BCR
Appropriate antigen is similar to self tissue
Viral infection triggers attack
State the pros and cons of live, attenuated vaccines.
Pros
Can multiply and produce infection (not disease) so obtain strong immune response
Long lasting protection
Fewer doses and booster shots required
Cons
Req special storage facilities
Can be transmitted to others
Potential for mutating back to original virulent form
Valley Fever in the SW region of the US and Lyme Disease in certain areas of the US display this type of infection disease pattern.
Endemic - disease that has relatively steady frequency over long periods in a particular geo locale
Which inflammatory response of inflammation includes fluid accumulation, redness, and heat.
2nd response - histamine causes vasodilation
Which APCs have MHC II?
T helper cells bind to MHC II via __ and __.
APCS - Macrophages, Dendritic, B cells
... via T cell receptor & CD4
Describe what occurs when one has Type 1 Diabetes.
Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus - Type IV hypersensitivity
Produce autoantibodies to insulin-secreting islet cells of pancreas
T cells are recruited and islet cells are destroyed
Lysis of islet cells reduces insulin production
Insulin is essential to cellular uptake of glucose
Tetanus toxin --> boiled to be denatured --> vaccine. What kind of vaccine is this?
Subunit vaccine - uses bacterial capsules or toxoids (inactivated bacterial toxin) or viral spikes
State Robert Koch's Postulates.
Correlate every case with specific microbe
Isolate & grow microbe in pure culture
Inoculate healthy subject with microbe
Re-isolate microbe & prove same microbe
Name the pathways to activate complement proteins.
- Classical (indirect) - antibodies bind to microbe, then binds to complement
- Alternative (direct) - complement binds to microbe
- Lectin (indirect) - liver produces lectin that binds to microbes and activates complement
How are T helper cells activated?
Helper CD4+ (check APCs - MHC II)
If APC is macrophage or dendritic cell, releases IL-1
Causes Th 1 → IL-2 (stimulates immune system - attracts/enables Tc, Th, more macrophages)
If APC is B cell (clonal selection), releases IL-4
Causes Th 2 → IL-4 & B cell growth factor (suppresses Th 1 cells & activates B cells, triggers clonal expansion & creation of antibodies)
B cell → humoral immunity → effective against extracellular pathogens
What causes a cell to become cancerous?
Causes of loss of cell cycle control:
Environmental factors cause mutations - UV rays
Viral infections - HPV (cervical cancer), HBV (liver cancer), EBV (Burkitt’s lymphoma, B cell cancer)
Faulty gene expression in the cell
P53 (tumor suppressor gene) - Tells cell when to divide and when to stop
If gene is mutated → cells won’t know when to stop dividing and continue to divide in an uncontrolled manner
State the benefits of vaccinations.
Confers long-lasting, sometimes lifetime, protection in individual
Establishes Herd Immunity (protects immunocompromised indiv and prevents epidemics)
State the Stages of Clinical Infections.
1. Incubations period
2. Prodromal stage
3. Period of invasion
4. Convalescent period
Body temp is normal maintained by the __. Fever is initiated when certain pathogens release chemicals called __. What are the benefits of fever?
Body temp is normal maintained by the hypothalamus. Fever is initiated when certain pathogens release chemicals called pyrogens.
Benefits of fever:
Inhibits multiplication of temp sensitive microbes
Increases metabolism and stimulates immune reactions
Fever impedes nutrition of bacteria by reducing availability of iron and zinc (bac req both for enzymatic reactions)
State the cytokines and their functions.
Interleukin-1:Activates Th cells to become Th1 when produced by bound APC (macrophage & dendritic)
Interleukin-2: Produced by active Th1 and stimulates other Th, macrophages, and Tc cells
Interleukin-4: Activates Th cells to become Th2 when produced by bound APC; Produced by Th2 cells to help activate B cells
B-cell Growth Factor: Made by Th2 to activate B cells
Interferons: Stimulate prod of antiviral proteins when released by other virally- infected cells
Chemokines: Attract leukocytes to an infection when released by mast cells
Explain the phenomenon of Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn. Be sure to include what cells and molecules are involved and the primary immune mediators. Also describe the treatment and how it works.
Rh factor - hemolytic disease of newborn
Rh factor is dominant trait and present in about 85% of humans (Rh+) → therefore never make antibodies against Rh+
No preformed antibodies like the ABO group, instead the only way one can develop antibodies against Rh factor is after exposure through transfusion or placental sensitization
Rh+ fetus develops within a Rh- mother → first fetus develops normally
Initial sensitization of mother during birth → mother makes anti-Rh antibodies
Future Rh+ fetuses will be at risk for mother’s antibodies resulting in severe, fetal hemolysis via complement fixation
Treatment - Rh- mothers with Rh+ babies are given anti-Rh antibodies (RhoGAM) at the birth to destroy fetal RBCs and prevent mom’s development of anti-Rh antibodies (IgG)
State the two types of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Describe their process and functions.
Direct ELISA - detects antigens in patient’s serum using specific antibody
Wells coated with known antibodies → if (+)Ags, binding occurs in well → wash off & 2nd Abs will bind to Ag → Positive = colored prod released by enzyme substrate rxn
Indirect ELISA - detects antibodies in patient’s serum against specific antigen
Wells coated with known antigens → if (+)Abs, binding occurs in well → wash off & 2nd Abs will bind to human Abs → Positive = colored prod released by enzyme substrate rxn