Teaching and Learning
What does it mean to reconceptualize learning and generalization as performance and learning?
Reconceptualizing learning and generalization as performance and learning shifts the focus from short-term acquiring of knowledge to actively applying knowledge in long-term situations. Bjork describes performance as the short-term context-specific occurrence of some behavior, while learning can be seen as the long-term, context-independent occurrence of the particular behavior (Bjork, 2004).
What are two reasons for preferring the term DLD instead of SLI (Bishop, McGregor et al.)? What are two problems with the change in terminology from SLI to DLD (Leonard article)?
Two reasons for preferring the term Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) over Specific Language Impairment (SLI) are that DLD more accurately reflects the broader range of language difficulties and is mor inclusive as it includes students with co-occurring developmental disorders.
One problem with transitioning from Specific Language Impairment (SLI) to Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) is that comparing past research can be challenging, as there is significantly more research available on SLI, making it difficult to apply evidence-based practices to DLD. Additionally, confusion among professionals regarding the criteria for diagnosing DLD can make it difficult to consistently identify individuals with these disorders.
What are three specific areas in which SLPs are uniquely qualified to provide services to students with written language disorders?
1. They can build collaborative relationships with teachers, administrators, and reading specialists to enhance literacy development for those at risk or already facing challenges in reading and writing.
2. SLPs play a crucial role in educating other professionals about the specific needs of individuals with written language disorders and clarifying how SLPs contribute to their diagnosis and treatment.
3. They are skilled in diagnosing reading and writing disorders, such as dyslexia, and can explain how these issues relate to the student's oral language challenges
What are three types of literacy knowledge that may be acquired during the emergent literacy period? Why are children from low print homes at risk for learning to read?
Literacy artifacts, literacy events, literacy knowledge.
The more the child is exposed to both spoken and written language, the more likely they are to acquire these emergent literacy skills early on. Without exposure to print and reading, these children may have difficultly later on with learning to read.
1. Provide three suggestions based on Joshi et al. and Apel’s powerpoints about how spelling should be taught.
2. What is the primary unit of written language? Spoken language? What impact does this difference have on learning to write?
1. Spelling intervention should be focused on the Five Blocks. The facilitation of spelling skills should occur across the curriculum and the teacher should follow the “I do, we do, you do” so that it is first modeled by the teacher, then worked on together, and finally the student tries.
2. The primary unit of written language would be a grapheme while for spoken language it would be a phoneme. This impacts students learning how to write as they have to learn how to transfer sounds into letters. This can be challenging because they have to understand both phonemic awareness and spelling patterns.
Describe and give two examples of a procedural view of learning (Kamhi/Ullman).
A procedural view of learning emphasizes the transfer of knowledge from declarative to procedural (automatic). For example, when learning to ride a bike, the learner initially understands the principles of balance and steering (declarative knowledge), but through repeated practice, they develop procedural knowledge that allows them to apply what they know and eventually ride without much conscious effort or thinking. Another example of this is driving. When you first are learning to drive it takes lots of thought and knowledge in rules to the road. After this knowledge has transferred to the procedural view, the person is able to apply that knowledge and have driving become automatic.
What is the main finding from research about treatment (dose) intensity? (Kamhi/Eisenberg 2014 articles)
Kamhi & Eisenberg suggested that longer and more practice is not always better. However, distributed practice, with long intervals between learning episodes has more impact on treatment outcomes than intensity.
What would you say to convince SLPs that they should play a role in assessing/targeting reading, spelling, and writing in therapy?
I’d really encourage SLPs to see how their background in language development gives them a unique edge in helping with reading, spelling, and writing. By incorporating these areas into their therapy, they can make a big difference in students' communication skills and overall academic success. It’s a great way to provide well-rounded support that truly addresses the root of language and literacy challenges.
What achievement characterizes the orthographic stage?
The ability to read sight words. This involves recognizing words visually through letter sequences and spelling patterns, rather than relying sounding the word out.
What evidence shows that dyslexia is a language-based disorder not a visually-based disorder? To answer this question, you must show that you understand what phonological processing is.
Dyslexia is fundamentally linked to difficulties in phonological processing and language skills, rather than visual abilities. Phonological processing encompasses several key components. First is phonological awareness, which is the ability to recognize and manipulate the phonemes in words. Then phonological retrieval, which involves quickly accessing phonological information from memory. Phonological memory is the capacity to hold spoken information in short-term memory and phonological production, which refers to accurately producing sounds and words. This idea of phonological processing is intricately woven in with Dyslexia because weak language skills, particularly in phonological processing, make it harder for children to develop essential skills that are needed for reading. While at the same time poor reading skills, limit the child’s exposure to text and vocabulary acquisition.
Provide three examples of desirable difficulties and discuss the research that supports them (PP presentation, Bjork, Kamhi 2014).
Research by Bjork (1994) indicates that desirable difficulties like spacing, interleaving, and testing effect, ultimately leads to improved long-term retention. Spacing, involves spreading out study sessions over time instead of cramming all at once. Interleaving includes mixing various topics or types of problems during study sessions. Testing effect shows that regular testing enhances retention more than re-studying the same content.
What are two factors that have contributed to the continued decline of clinical services to children with DLD? What are three of McGregor’s (2020) suggestions to increase the number of children with DLD who receive clinical services?
The decline of services for children with DLD could be due to the lack of appropriate testing and also just the lack of awareness around the term and underrepresentation of children with DLD in research. With this taken into consideration it is difficult to get insurance to cover the therapy sessions.
McGregor (2020) suggests improving training for teachers, get better diagnostic tests, and advocate for policy changes.
What are two reasons for not using IQ-achievement discrepancy to identify children with a specific learning disability? (Fletcher pp. 12-13). How should SLD children be identified according to Fletcher.
The IQ-achievement discrepancy model is problematic as it can delay intervention, relies on potentially biased assessments, and overlooks other important factors influencing learning. Fletcher suggests that identification of SLD should be based on a comprehensive assessment that includes various data points, such as response to intervention (RTI) strategies, classroom performance, and standardized tests
How do children teach themselves to read?
Children can learn to identify orthographic patterns independently, rather than attempting to connect each letter in a word to its corresponding sound,.
We spent some time in class discussing whether knowing the cause of a reading or language disorder/disability is important for deciding how to treat the disability. What did we decide?
There are definitely benefits in knowing the case when treating a disability. Is it absolutely needed in order to pursue treatment? No. But there are some reasons why we should care about the cause. First, there is just inherently a need to know that we have in our human nature. Parents are also going to want to know what caused it and have questions regarding etiologies. Two really important aspects for our clients, is first that knowing the cause could impact prevention. And secondly, it can provide additional information that will help clinicians to determine proper intervention targets.
What are four characteristics of good reasoning (Stanovich, 2009)?
Why do the vast majority of teachers believe in the auditory vs. visual learning style distinction?
1. Seek various points of view before coming to a conclusion
2. Think a lot about a problem before responding
3. Think about future consequences before acting
4. Seek nuance and avoid absolutism
The belief in auditory versus visual learning styles persists among teachers because it commonly accepted “wisdom.” Everyone figures it must be right because everyone else believes it. This is the idea of confirmation bias. Once something is believed, we then will interpret ambiguous situations as being consistent with what we believed. When this idea of auditory vs visual learning styles is reinforced in the schools or in trainings, it is easy for teachers to adapt this perspective and project it on their students.
Provide two suggestions for targeting complex sentences
1. In younger children Kamhi (2014) suggests targeting the meanings and/or functions conveyed by the syntactic structure rather than the structure
itself.
2. Examples: object causes and conjoined and embedded clauses.
What is the simple view of reading? What are the three subgroups or RD based on this view of reading?
The simple view of reading is- Reading comprehension = Word recognition x Language Comprehension.
Examples of subgroups: poor decoding and good comprehension (Dyslexia), poor decoding and poor comprehension (Dyslexia + DLD), and good decoding and poor comprehension (DLD).
What is the lexicalization process? Provide an example of how it occurs.
The lexicalization process occurs when frequent exposure to print leads to specific letter sequences become associated with particular words. For example, the sequence “ight” becomes associated with the word “light.
What are three differences between spoken and written language (Kamhi/Catts- Ch. 1, pp. 15-20) and two myths and/or basic truths about writing discussed in the Richardson article.
Spoken language is often more spontaneous, contains incomplete sentences and relies heavily on context, tone, and body language to contain meaning. However, written language is generally more structures and planned, with clear grammar and sentence construction to ensure the message is comprehensible without additional cues. (Took from my discussion post).
The first myth is that writing is a solitary activity. This is not true because writing actually is often collaborative (experiencing discussion, review, feedback, etc.) which can greatly enhance the writing process. Another myth is that writing is a basic skill that comes naturally, when in fact it is a complex process that requires ongoing instruction and practice to develop. While individuals aren’t born as skilled writers they can become proficient through consistent and effective guidance.
1. Why should effort be praised rather than ability?
2. Why are sequencing abilities not important for retelling narratives or improving narrative abilities?
1. Effort should be praised rather than ability because recognizing hard work fosters a growth mindset and encourages a willingness to embrace challenges and learn from mistakes. Focusing on ability can lead to a fixed mindset and which could be discouraging to students. Effort being praised rather than ability also encourages students to think that their ability is under their control.
2. Sequencing abilities are not essential for retelling narratives because the focus is more on understanding the concepts rather than the order of events. Sequencing itself is not recognized as a distinct cognitive process in most cognitive models. Instead, errors in ordering and sequencing often stem from limitations in attention, working memory, or conceptual knowledge. This highlights that grasping the overall meaning of a narrative is more critical than the precise arrangement of details.
Provide two suggestions for targeting narrative/expository discourse.
In targeting narrative/expository discourse you could utilize contextualized language intervention, and also focus on concepts like cause and effect to make connections between relating events.
What is the relationship between DLD and dyslexia according to Adlof and Hogan (2018)? What are three clinical implications of the frequent co-occurrence of DLD and dyslexia?
Developmental language disorder (DLD) and dyslexia are distinct yet often co-occurring conditions, both affecting language and literacy skills. Children with dyslexia primarily struggle with reading and spelling due to difficulties in phonological processing, while those with DLD may experience broader challenges in language comprehension and production. Clinically, SLPs should advocate for the assessment of language skills across multiple domains as well as collaborate with reading/literacy specialists to support these students.
What does it mean to say word recognition is “word based” rather than stage based? How do children read novel words differently from familiar words?
When we say that word recognition is "word based," we mean that children recognize words as complete units, aiming for quick and accurate sight-word recognition without relying heavily on phonological decoding. Novel words are different from familiar words because they are often dependent on phonological decoding.
What are the four sources of knowledge that impact spelling according to Apel?Provide examples of how these sources of knowledge impact spelling. Explain what MGRs are so a parent or teacher would understand.
According to Apel, the four sources of knowledge that influence spelling are phonemic awareness, orthographic knowledge, morphological awareness, and semantic knowledge. Phonemic awareness affects spelling when difficulties lead to omissions or additions of phonemes, resulting in errors like letter reversals, particularly with liquids and nasals. Orthographic knowledge involves understanding sound-symbol correspondences essential for translating spoken language into written form. Morphological awareness pertains to recognizing the meanings of root words and their inflections. Challenges in this area can lead to omitting morphemes or incorrectly spelling them phonetically. Lastly, semantic knowledge which is important because spelling can impact word meanings, and confusion with homophones, such as "bear" and "bare," can arise when this understanding is lacking.
Mental Grapheme Representations (MGRs) could be described as mental images or memories we create for how letters and letter combinations correspond to sounds in words. When children read or write, they draw on these mental representations to recall how to spell words correctly and recognize words quickly/accurately.