Chapter 1
What is the goal of psychology?
To describe, predict, and explain behaviour
What is the scientific method? List the steps
1. Observe phenomenon; identify a research question
2. Read the literature; form a hypothesis that you can test by collecting data
3. Operationally define variables of interest; choose a research method/design (e.g., survey, experiment)
4. Conduct study, analyze data, draw conclusions
5. Tie results back to theory, draw conclusions regarding theory; form new research questions
How can we evaluate self-report measures?
Reliability: consistency of measurement – scores are consistent over time and with repetition
Validity: extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure
Test-retest reliability: similar scores over time
Interrater reliability: two or more observers or experimenters should produce similar scores
What is the basic building block of the nervous system that receives and transmits information?
A neuron
Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for regulating balance, coordination, and smooth movements?
The cerebellum
What are the six principles of critical thinking?
1. Ruling out rival hypotheses
2. Correlation does not equal causation
3. Falsifiability
4. Replicability
5. Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence
6. Occam's razor, principle of parsimony
What makes a good theory?
-Internally consistent (all predictions must agree with each other and have no contradictions)
-Empirically sound (supported by the data)
-Parsimonious (simple, but covers a lot of ground; as few assumptions as possible)
-Integrates previous research (bulks up the theory), but also generates new knowledge
-Needs to be tested or falsified
What is the difference between a cross-sectional design and a longitudinal design?
Cross-sectional design: Compare/contrast people of different ages at a single time point
Longitudinal design: Follows the development of the same group of people over time
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
1. The central nervous system
2. The peripheral nervous system
What is the difference between the nervous system and the endocrine system in how they communicate with the body?
-The nervous system communicates primarily through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters
-The endocrine system releases hormones into the bloodstream
-Hormonal effects are often slower and longer lasting
What are some different branches within modern psychology?
Clinical and Counselling Psychology: assess, diagnose, and treat people with mental health conditions
Health Psychology: focus on how biological, social, and psychological factors intersect to promote optimal health (e.g., recovery from illness).
School/Educational Psychology: work with teachers, parents and children to support children’s learning and adjustment to school
Community Psychology: improve relationships among individuals and their communities (e.g., community mental health services)
Experimental Psychology: Research to understand memory, language, thinking, etc.
Cross-Cultural Psychology: studies the role of culture in understanding behaviour, thought and emotion
Forensic Psychology: assess, diagnose, assist with rehabilitation of prison inmates or research on eyewitnesses or juries
Industrial-Organizational: help select employees, design equipment for maximum productivity
Environmental Psychology: focuses on interactions between people and their environment
What is external and internal validity?
External validity: the extent to which results from a study can be applied (generalized) to other situations, groups, or events
Internal validity: refers to the degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables (e.g., randomizing participants)
What is the placebo effect?
Improvement because you expect improvement but no actual effect, example: sugar pill
What are the functions of dendrites and axons, and how do they differ?
Dendrites: Receive signals from other cells
Axons: Carry neural impulses away from the cell body
After a stroke, a person gradually regains some abilities by learning to use other brain pathways. What is this brain's ability to reorganize and adapt called?
Neuroplasticity or brain plasticity
What are some of the "ism" psychology theories? Name and explain.
Structuralism - what is conscious thought like? Focused on the what. Focused on identifying the structures of the human mind, explored through introspection.
Functionalism - focused on the why. Why do we have thoughts, feelings, and behaviours? Focused on what the mind is for (functions) rather than what it is (structures).
Behaviourism - Emphasized that psychology should be about what people do (behaviour) and should not concern itself with things that cannot be seen (mental processes).
Cognitivism - understand how our thoughts impact our behaviour in a variety of ways – focus is on attention, memory, adaptive (healthy) vs. maladaptive (unhealthy) thought patterns, problem solving, etc.
Are theories just guesses? How does the scientific theory come into this?
-A scientific theory does not get “proven”.
-A scientific theory is established by the number and cleverness of the failed attempts to disprove it
-When we hear that a scientific explanation is “just a theory”, we should remember that theories aren’t just guesses. Some theories have survived repeated efforts to disprove them and are well-confirmed models of how the world works
What do experiments need? What are some pitfalls in experiments?
-Random sample of participants for the study
-Random assignment to the group
-Experimental Group: receives manipulation, treatment, or intervention
-Control Group: does not receive manipulation, treatment, or intervention
-The independent variable is manipulated while the dependent variable is measured
-Single-blind study: participant is unsure of what they're getting (placebo or real?)
-Double-blind study: the researcher and participant doesn’t know what they're getting
-Experimenter bias: researchers’ bias leads them to unintentionally influence participants’ responses
-Demand characteristic: any aspect of a study that communicates to participants how the experimenter wants them to behave
-Research participant bias: subtle cues that participants pick up allowing them to guess the researcher's hypothesis, and then behave the way they think the researcher wants them to
What is the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
The sympathetic division prepares the body for action ("fight-or-flight"), while the parasympathetic division calms the body and conserves energy ("rest-and-digest")
During a stressful situation, the body releases hormones that increase heart rate and prepare it for action. Which two endocrine glands are especially involved in the stress response, and what hormone do the adrenal glands release to help prepare the body for action?
-The hypothalamus and adrenal glands are involved
-The adrenal glands release epinephrine (adrenaline)
What is psychoanalysis?
-Rooted in early (traumatic) childhood experiences that have been repressed
-Conflict between biological drives and demands of society
-Theorized that early relationships with parents shape an individual's personality
-Iceberg (ego is the middle person or the deciding factor, superego is the angel or morality, id is the devil where your intrusive thoughts occur)
What is correlational design? Does correlation cause causation?
-Tells us about the relation between two or more variables and how they change together
-Correlations range from –1 to +1 (strength is the # and direction is the +/-)
-No, correlation does not cause causation. Just because two things are related does not mean that one causes another!!!
-Only possible to talk about causation through experimental design
-Third-variable problem: when a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables
What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?
Descriptive statistics: mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way (includes mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation)
Inferential statistics: allows us to determine whether we can generalize findings from a sample to the larger population
What happens when an action potential reaches the axon terminals of a neuron, and how does this allow the neuron to communicate with another cell?
Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, cross the synaptic gap, and bind to receptors on the receiving cell
What is the difference between the functions of the frontal lobe and the occipital lobe, and what might happen if each were damaged?
-The frontal lobe is involved in planning, decision-making, personality, and voluntary movement. Damage may affect these abilitites
-The occipital lobe processes visual information. Damage may impair vision or visual processing