Hinduism #1
rishi (ṛṣi)
In the Vedic tradition, these "seers" or "visionaries" were inspired by deities like Agni and Soma, whose illumination and intoxication allowed them to compose sacred hymns. Their divinely inspired words are considered śruti (that which is heard).
maya (māyā)
In the Upaniṣadic tradition, maya (māyā) refers to the illusory nature of the physical world/illusion, which is seen as a deceptive construct of time, space, and causation. It distracts individuals from recognizing the true, unchanging reality of brahman and its unity with the self (ātman).
sallekhana (sallekhanā)
the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death
Mahavira died in this way
Nirvana (nibbana) (nirvāṇa)
This term refers to the ultimate goal in Buddhism: liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra). It signifies the “blowing out” of desire, ignorance, and suffering, leading to complete freedom (mokṣa) and peace.
Four Noble Truths
Suffering (duḥkha)
Cause of Suffering (samudaya)
Cessation of Suffering (nirodha)
Eightfold Noble Path (mārga)
bhakti
This theistic form of Hindu practice emphasizes love, devotion, and emotional connection to a personal god like Viṣṇu, Śiva, or Devī. It offers a path to liberation (mokṣa) through heartfelt worship rather than extreme austerities, contrasting with the more impersonal concept of the Absolute Reality found in the Upaniṣads.
shruti (śruti)
shruti (śruti) refers to the earliest sacred literature of Hinduism, known as the Vedas. Meaning "heard" or "revealed," it highlights the oral nature of these texts, which were believed to be divinely received by seers (ṛṣis) and passed down through generations as sacred speech.
Jina
Jina means "conquerors", i.e., those who have conquered their passions, also known as tīrthaṅkaras (“forders”). Jina provides a role model for Jain followers.
Mahavira was the most recent “jina” (24th, c. 599-527 BCE), also the final jina of the present age.
anicca (anitya)
impermanence
This Buddhism concept, one of the three marks of existence (tri-lakṣaṇa), refers to the impermanent nature of all things.
In Buddhism, all compounded phenomena—whether physical objects or experiences—are subject to change, decay, and disintegration. Recognizing this constant flux helps to reduce attachment and leads to greater wisdom on the path to liberation.
Triratna (three jewels)
All Buddhists, whether lay or ordained, “take refuge” in the “3 Jewels”
Buddha (the teacher)
Dharma (the teachings)
Sangha (community)
ātman and Brahman
In the Upaniṣads, Brahman refers to the eternal, unchanging Absolute Reality behind all existence, while ātman represents the divine “self” within each person/the essence of human beings.
Realizing their identification leads to liberation (mokṣa) from the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra).
shramana (śramaṇa)
These non-Brahmin wanderers and ascetics emerged during the Upaniṣadic era, rejecting Vedic authority and seeking liberation through yoga, meditation, and physical austerities. Buddhism and Jainism are the most well-known movements associated with them.
ahimsa (ahimsā)
nonviolence
central practice/supreme dharma of Jainism
Above all, to be a Jain is to observe non-violence (ahimsā)
anatman (anātman)
No Self or Selflessness
This Buddhist concept, one of the three marks of existence (tri-lakṣaṇa), teaches that there is no permanent, unchanging self behind our physical and mental experiences.
dukkha (duhkha) (duḥkha)
suffering
This Buddhist concept, one of the three marks of existence (tri-lakṣaṇa), refers to the pervasive nature of suffering in life.
In Buddhism, suffering arises from craving (tṛṣṇā) and manifests in three forms: the suffering of suffering (physical and emotional), the suffering of change (disappointment when things don’t last), and the suffering of conditioned existence (the subtle dissatisfaction underlying all experiences). Recognizing and addressing this is key to escaping the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra).
Four types of Vedic/Śruti texts
Saṃhitās (hymns) (4 Vedas: Ṛg, Sāma, Yajur, Athārva)
Brāhmaṇas (ritual instructions)
Āraṇyakas (philosophical interpretations of ritual)
Upaniṣads (philosophical speculative texts)
4 castes (varnas) (varṇas)
This hierarchical social system included brāhmaṇas/brahmins (priests and teachers), kṣatriyas (kings and warriors), and vaiśyas (agriculturists and merchants). A fourth group, the śūdras (artisans and servants), was viewed as subordinate and mythologized in the Ṛg-Veda as emerging from the feet of the cosmic being Puruṣa, while the brāhmaṇas came from his mouth, kṣatriyas from his arms, and vaiśyas from his thighs.
Only the first three castes were considered "twice-born" and allowed to study the Vedas.
This system was reinforced by Brāhmaṇical strategies to maintain social order as sacrificial religion declined.
Digambara
After Mahavira's death, Jainism was divided into 2 sects. One is “Sky-Clad” (digambara) Sect.
Digambaras insisted that the vow of non-possession meant total renunciation, including clothes. Digambara monks renounce all possessions, including clothes.
Thus, digambaras deny women entry into monastic life. Women must be born as men—then they may become monks and attain enlightenment.
arhat and bodhisattva
In Theravāda and early Buddhism, arhat refers to someone who has achieved personal liberation (nirvāṇa) by following the teachings of the Buddha.
In early Buddhism, bodhisattva (=“one who is intent on bodhi (enlightenment)”) referred to the Buddha before his enlightenment.
In Mahāyāna Buddhism, bodhisattva became the ideal of someone who seeks enlightenment not just for themselves, but for the benefit of all living beings. These “enlightenment beings” are often depicted as compassionate, mythic figures with superhuman powers, dedicated to guiding others toward liberation.
Buddha Nature (tathāgatagarbha)
This Mahāyāna Buddhist concept offers a positive view of the absolute, suggesting that all living beings possess an innate potential for enlightenment. Known as the “womb” or “essence” of the Buddha, it represents the pure, true nature within every living beings, obscured by delusions like greed and anger.
Unlike the more “negative” doctrine of Emptiness (śūnyatā), this teaching emphasizes the inherent presence of Buddha Nature in all beings.
“4 Aims of Life” (purushaarthas) (puruṣa-arthas)
This Brāhmaṇical framework was developed by the Brahmin priests in response to the decline of sacrificial religion and the rise of Upaniṣadic ideas.
It outlines four goals: dharma (virtue, duty, morality), kāma (sensual and emotional pleasures), artha (wealth, success, and security), and mokṣa (liberation from the cycle of birth and death).
These aims integrate worldly pursuits with spiritual values, allowing individuals to balance personal fulfillment with societal responsibilities while maintaining traditional social order.
“4 Stages of Life” (ashramas) (āśramas)
This Brāhmaṇical framework outlines the ideal progression of a person’s life through four stages: brahmacarya (student life, studying with a guru), gṛhastha (householder, fulfilling family and social duties), vānaprastha (forest dweller, withdrawing for study and meditation), and sannyāsa (renunciant, fully detaching from worldly life to pursue liberation). These stages were designed to balance worldly responsibilities with spiritual goals, helping maintain social order as religious practices shifted.
Shvetambara
After Mahavira's death, Jainism was divided into 2 sects. One is “White-Clad” (śvetāmbara) Sect.
Śvetāmbaras hold that some minimal clothing is allowed for modesty.
They assert that women can become nuns and become enlightened.
They believe that the 19th Jina was a woman (Mallināth).
2 main “schools” or movements of Buddhism and characteristics
The two main movements in Buddhism are Theravāda (“School of the Elders”), sometimes referred to (pejoratively) as Hīnayāna (“Lesser Vehicle”), and Mahāyāna (“Great Vehicle”).
Theravāda/Hīnayāna emphasizes monastic discipline and the arhat ideal of personal liberation, and is practiced mainly in South and Southeast Asia. Its core teachings are the Four Noble Truths.
Mahāyāna focuses on the bodhisattva ideal—seeking enlightenment for all beings—features elaborate cosmologies, and is prevalent in North, Central, and East Asia.
shunyata (śūnyatā) (emptiness)
This Mahāyāna Buddhist concept refines earlier teachings on No-Self and impermanence, asserting that all things lack inherent, independent existence. Both persons and phenomena are “empty” because they arise only in relation to other things through interdependent causation. Even concepts like saṃsāra and nirvāṇa are dependent on each other and thus devoid of inherent essence.
***Further explanation of emptiness:
Everything is empty of inherent existence because everything arises due to causes and conditions. A table, for instance, exists because of wood, craftsmanship, and time, but there is no "tableness" inherent in it. Without its parts or conditions, the concept of "table" vanishes.
Emptiness doesn't mean that things don't exist at all; rather, they exist interdependently and are devoid of an independent, unchanging essence. Recognizing this helps overcome attachment and aversion, leading to liberation from suffering.