Interviews
How should the interview guide be established?
The interview guide should be developed based on the research question and relevant theory, translating abstract concepts into accessible, open-ended questions. It should provide structure while remaining flexible enough to allow participants to introduce relevant topics and perspectives.
Describe the purpose of observations in qualitative research
Observations are used to capture actual behavior and interactions in context, rather than relying on self-reported accounts. They are qualitative because they focus on meaning, process, and situated action within real-life settings.
What are the measures of recording observational data?
Observational data are typically recorded through field notes, memos, audio or video recordings, and sometimes photographs, depending on ethical and practical considerations.
What in general characterizes quantitative research?
Quantitative research is characterized by a deductive logic, where researchers move from theory to empirical testing. The starting point is existing theory, which is translated into hypotheses and measurable variables. Research design is critically important because data collection is the main source of validity and inference. Quantitative research questions typically focus on correlational, comparative, or causal relationships, and therefore often take the form of “what” questions. The overall aim is to produce structured, comparable data that allow for statistical analysis and generalizable conclusions.
Which of the above is used or practiced in your project?
In our project, the theoretical relationships are framed primarily around direct effects, with potential consideration of mediating or moderating mechanisms depending on the research question and available data. The choice reflects the aim of testing clearly specified theoretical expectations using quantitative methods.
What different question styles can be used?
Interview questions may include introductory questions to ease participants into the topic, probing questions to deepen understanding, specifying questions to clarify details, and direct or indirect questions depending on the sensitivity of the topic. Using varied question styles supports both depth and clarity.
What are observations in research?
In essence, observations involve systematically watching, listening to, and recording what people do and how they interact in specific settings. They allow researchers to study practices as they unfold.
Why use documents in qualitative research, and what are their strengths and limitations?
Documents are used because they provide naturally occurring data that reflect organizational practices over time. Their strengths include accessibility and longitudinal insight, while limitations include that they were produced for purposes other than research and therefore require careful interpretation.
What characterises an independent and a dependent variable?
An independent variable represents the factor that is expected to explain or influence outcomes, while the dependent variable represents the outcome of interest that is being measured. In quantitative research, independent variables are either manipulated by the researcher or observed as naturally occurring differences, whereas dependent variables capture responses, behaviors, or outcomes that vary as a result.
Please describe the data gathering process
The quantitative data gathering process begins with translating theoretical concepts into measurable variables through operationalization. Researchers then select an appropriate data source, such as experiments, surveys, or archival data, and carefully design the procedure to ensure reliability and validity. Data are collected in a structured and standardized way, followed by cleaning, preparation, and statistical analysis.
Describe the purpose of the interview guide
The purpose of the interview guide is to ensure consistency across interviews while allowing flexibility for exploration. It helps the interviewer cover key themes systematically without turning the interview into a rigid questionnaire.
How do activity and place matter in observations?
Both activity and place shape behavior and meaning. Observations therefore pay attention to what actors are doing and where they are doing it, as context influences how actions are performed and interpreted.
Why use documents as naturally occurring data?
Documents are valuable because they are not shaped by the research process itself and can therefore provide insight into everyday practices, formal structures, and organizational narratives.
What characterizes a direct effect?
A direct effect describes a relationship where changes in the independent variable are directly associated with changes in the dependent variable, without involving additional explanatory variables. It captures the simplest form of theoretical relationship, where one variable is assumed to influence another in a straightforward manner.
Please describe the concept of experiments in quantitative methods
Experiments are quantitative research designs used to establish causal relationships. In an experimental setting, the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls the environment to isolate its effect on the dependent variable. By systematically varying conditions and holding other factors constant, experiments allow strong causal inference, with the level of control varying from tightly controlled laboratory settings to more natural field experiments.
Please describe the purpose of probing
Probing is used to encourage participants to elaborate, clarify, or reflect more deeply on their answers. It helps uncover underlying meanings and processes that may not emerge from initial responses.
How does the role of the observer matter?
The observer’s level of involvement can range from passive observation to active participation. This role influences what data can be accessed and how participants behave, and it must be reflected upon critically.
What establishes reliable qualitative data?
Reliable qualitative data are established through reliability, validity, and credibility. Reliability refers to consistency in data collection and analysis procedures. Validity concerns whether the data accurately capture the phenomenon of interest. Credibility refers to the trustworthiness of findings, which is strengthened through transparency, reflexivity, and grounding interpretations in empirical material.
What characterizes mediation?
Mediation occurs when the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable operates through an intermediate variable. The mediator explains how or why the independent variable influences the outcome by transmitting the effect through an underlying mechanism or process.
How can the independent variable be manipulated?
Independent variables can be manipulated using stimuli such as visual or textual cues, vignettes that describe hypothetical scenarios, situational or contextual manipulations that alter the environment, or interactively created settings where participants’ actions shape the experimental conditions. Each approach differs in realism and control, but all aim to systematically vary the independent variable.
Please describe potential biases in interviews
Interview biases may include confirmation bias, where the researcher seeks evidence that supports prior expectations; cultural bias, where questions reflect the researcher’s norms; question-order bias, where earlier questions influence later responses; leading questions and wording bias, which steer answers; and the halo effect, where one impression shapes overall judgments.
What are grand-tour and mini-tour observations?
Grand-tour observations provide a broad overview of a setting or practice, while mini-tour observations focus in detail on specific activities, interactions, or moments within that setting.
How can triangulation improve the quality of observational and document-based qualitative data?
Triangulation improves the quality of qualitative data by combining multiple data sources, methods, or perspectives to examine the same phenomenon. In the context of observations and documents, triangulation allows researchers to compare what people say, what they do, and what is formally documented. For example, observational data can reveal actual practices, while documents provide formal accounts or institutional narratives. When these sources converge, credibility is strengthened; when they diverge, this prompts deeper analytical reflection rather than being treated as error. Triangulation therefore enhances credibility, confirmability, and robustness of qualitative findings by reducing reliance on a single source and mitigating researcher bias.
What characterizes moderation?
Moderation occurs when the strength or direction of the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable depends on a third variable. A moderator therefore explains when, for whom, or under what conditions an effect is stronger, weaker, or reversed.
What are real effort tasks?
Real effort tasks require participants to perform actual tasks, such as solving problems or completing activities, rather than merely reporting attitudes or intentions. These tasks increase realism and engagement and are often used to measure effort, performance, or persistence more accurately.