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The Protestant Reformation
The Spread of Christianity
The Scientific Revolution
The Enlightenment
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100
Who is Martin Luther, and why did he write the “95 Theses?” What did the "95 Theses" critique?
Luther was a German priest who publicly debated about various abuses within the Roman Catholic Church. He nailed his“95 Theses” to the Church door in Wittenberg. This document critiqued the luxurious life of the Pope, corruption, the selling of indulgences, etc. Indulgences are certificates that were said to remove the penalties of sin (a.k.a. “ buying your way into Heaven”).
100
What is syncretism? Provide 4 examples.
Syncretism is the blending of different beliefs that are often in conflict with one another, but have an underlying unity. Examples: Andean Christianity, Mexican Christianity, Neo-Confucianism, Sikhism, Vodou, etc.
100
Describe the differences between the geocentric and heliocentric models of the universe. Who proposed each model?
Geocentric: Aristotle & Ptolemy, the idea that the earth is the center of the universe and everything else revolves around the earth, 10 fixed spheres Heliocentric: Copernicus, the idea that the sun is the center of the universe and everything else revolves around the sun → challenged the Church because the earth is no longer the center of God’s attention
100
Who is Mary Wollstonecraft, and whose viewpoint did she contradict?
Wollstonecraft confronted Rousseau’s view that women are inferior to men. She initiated an Enlightened debate about the role of women, and about the kind of education women should receive.
100
Who is threatened by Luther’s preaching against relics and indulgences?
Catholic clergymen (i.e. Luther’s colleagues & Johann Tetzel) and the Pope
200
What is a schism? Provide an example of one.
A schism is a division between strongly opposed sides due to a difference in beliefs. Example: Protestant vs. Catholic
200
Who is Abd al-Wahhab, and what did he do?
Wahhab was an Islamic scholar who founded Wahhabism – the most well known Islamic movement of religious reform. It took place in Arabia. Wahhab believed that the Ottoman Empire was weak because Islam had strayed away from its pure form. In other words, he blamed Islamization. He didn’t like how people were worshipping saints, tombs, and holy sites as if they were gods. This went against the monotheistic Islam faith. Monotheism is the belief in one god.
200
Why did the Scientific Revolution develop in Europe?
Columbian Exchange Independent institutions that didn’t have to answer to the Church or the government (these didn’t exist in China or the Islamic world) Protestant Reformation challenged authority → skepticism about authority
200
What is the "Encyclopedie"?
A French encyclopedia that included contributions by different Enlightenment authors. It helped spread the movement across Europe, and changed the way people thought.
200
Why were commoners attracted to Luther’s ideas?
Used them as a tool to protest against the whole social order, everyone had access to the Bible in a language that they could understand, all jobs were of equal value to society, etc.
300
What is the Counter-Reformation? Provide an example of a Counter-Reformation group.
The Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation, in which the Catholic Church clarified their doctrines and practices and reaffirmed the importance of good works and Church teachings. At the Council of Trent, they set about correcting the abuses and corruption in the Church that had started the Reformation. As a result, they placed a new emphasis on the education and supervision of priests and gave new attention to individual spirituality. The Jesuits were a new religious order of priests committed to renewing the Catholic Church. They worked to spread their mission abroad, as we saw in China.
300
Compare and contrast the outlook of the Wahhabis with that of Martin Luther.
Similarities: wanted to “purify” their religion, started a religious movement, destroyed all idols, etc. Differences: Wahhabis were more violent than Luther’s followers
300
Describe the differences between the Scientific Revolution in Europe and the kaozheng movement in China.
The kaozheng movement emphasized a scientific approach to knowledge, but it was applied more to the study of the past than to the natural world. The Scientific Revolution in Europe was applied to the natural world (i.e. the physical universe, the human body, etc.)
300
What are two forms of Enlightenment religion?
1) Deism – the belief in an abstract god that had created the world, but then didn’t interfere with it afterwards 2) Pantheism – the belief that God and nature are the same thing, so people could use science to understand God
300
When the Jesuits went to China, who did they seek to convert?
Chinese elites and scholars who practiced Confucianism – the philosophy of the Chinese scholar class that studied classical texts and tried to constantly improve
400
What is the Peace of Westphalia?
The Peace of Westphalia ended the 30 Years War (a Catholic-Protestant war that involved almost all of Europe). It was an agreement that the religion of a territory was only the business of that territory.
400
Compare and contrast the outlook of Kabir with that of Martin Luther.
Similarities: “faith alone,” no one in between believers and God Differences: Kabir didn’t have specific religious doctrine in mind (he just wanted to believe in a god), and Luther wanted to reform Catholic Church doctrine
400
How did other scientists support Copernicus’ idea of a heliocentric universe?
Kepler – planets follow elliptical orbits, which opposed the ancient belief that they move in perfect circles Galileo – telescope proved the universe is larger than we think (a.k.a. it’s not fixed) and that there are imperfections, such as sunspots, on the heavenly bodies (a.k.a. God’s creations are not perfect) Newton – idea of universal gravitation (a.k.a. the heavens and the earth are not so different because they’re both controlled by the same laws)
400
Describe a typical Enlightenment era salon.
Salons were social gatherings, hosted by wealthy women. Artists and intellectuals would be invited to perform and discuss social issues. Women would ask questions about various Enlightenment values, and men would attempt to have a “reasonable” and “intellectual” discussion about these values.
400
How did India use religion to try to eliminate the tension between Muslims and Hindus? Hint: this is a new movement
The Bhakti movement was a new form of Hinduism that sought to achieve union with India’s gods through song, dance, prayer, poetry, etc. It set aside gender and class distinctions, and because it resembled the Sufi form of Islam (mystical), it helped blur the distinction between Hindus and Muslims.
500
What was Luther’s new understanding of salvation? How does it compare to the Catholic understanding of salvation?
Luther: Humans are saved by “faith alone” (it’s only necessary to believe in it to be saved), no other people in between believers and God are necessary, and the Bible is the only true source of truth and should be available for everyone to read and understand Catholics: Both faith and good works are necessary for salvation and only priests can correctly interpret the meaning of the Bible, so they are necessary
500
In the Andean Christian image of the Virgin Mary inside a mountain, why did the artist choose to portray her inside the mountain, rather than on it, and do you think the artist was a European or an Andean Christian?
This image is an example of syncretism – the blending of the Andean earth gods with the Christian Virgin Mary into one spiritual being. The artist is probably a European because the Christian and European spiritual beings/people are larger, and therefore more important, than the smaller Inca ruler and the even smaller native miners.
500
Who is Roger Bacon? Who is Rene Descartes?
Roger Bacon: father of the scientific method; inductive reasoning (specific --> general) Rene Descartes: father of modern philosophy; deductive reasoning (general --> specific); "I think, therefore I am" (a.k.a. doubt everything until it can be proven by reason)
500
Describe the Enlightenment philosophies of John Locke, Adam Smith, and Rousseau.
Locke: a constitutional government governed by the people, not by the divine right of kings – the “consent of the governed” Adam Smith: the “invisible hand” that guides people to choose what benefits them over what it costs others should be applied to the economy Rousseau: the government and its people enter into a “social contract” when that government comes to power – the people give the government freedom to create laws, and the subjects expect the government to protect them with these laws
500
How did Luther’s account of his issues with the Catholic Church change from his “Introduction to the 95 Theses” in 1517 to his “Table Talks” in 1535?
Difference in tone: calm, respectful, submissive → more aggressive, angrier Place in life: beginning of career → leader of a religious movement Disagreement with the Church: indulgences → the Pope’s power