Theories in Reading Instruction
Top-Down Theory Questioned
Studies demonstrate that proficient readers do not skip over _____ and phrases, nor do they rely on ______ alone to gain information. They do read as many as five words each second (Raynor and Pollatsek 1987) and fixate on almost all words in text (e.g., Just and Carpenter 1980).
Fluent readers are less reliant on ______ in processing textual information than poor readers because they are more adept at recognizing individual words within text (Stanovich 1986).
What are words, context and context?
Proficient Reading Depends On:
______________ awareness.
Using phonics to decode accurately.
Recognizing words ______________.
Knowing what most words mean.
Constructing _________; connecting the text with prior knowledge.
Monitoring comprehension and repairing miscomprehension if necessary.
What are 1. phonological 2. automatically and 3. meaning
Paul _____ is best known for his research on Broca’s area, a region of the frontal lobe that has been named after him. Broca's Area is involved with articulated ________. His work (1861) revealed that the brains of patients suffering from ________ contained lesions in a particular part of the cortex, in the ______ frontal region. This was the first anatomical proof of the localization of brain function.
Who is Broca? and What is 2. language, 3. aphasia and 4. left?
How Speech and Language Develops?
The first ____ years of life, when the brain is developing and maturing, is the most intensive period for acquiring speech and language skills.
Humans are “hard-wired” to learn to ______.
These skills develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others.
What is 1. three and 2. speak?
Birth to 3 Months:
Reacts to loud _______
Calms down or smiles when _______ to
Recognizes your ______ and calms down if crying
When feeding, starts or stops sucking in response to sound
Coos and makes pleasure sounds
Has a special way of crying for different needs
Smiles when he or she sees you
What is 1. sounds, 2. spoken and 3. voice?
Speech and Language Disorder:
Children who have trouble __________ what others say (receptive language) or difficulty sharing their ________ (expressive language) may have a language disorder.
Specific language impairment (SLI) is a language disorder that delays the mastery of language skills. Some children with SLI may not begin to talk until their third or fourth year.
What is 1. understanding and 2. thoughts?
Limited Capacity Mechanism (or verbal efficiency)
n human information processing during complex skills such as reading, many components must be coordinated within a very short time. If none of these processes are automatic, there will not be enough attention available to execute the reading act successfully due to limited capacity mechanism (LaBerge and Samuels 1974).
The more ________ the ability to recognize individual words in reading text, the greater the resources available for comprehending it (Perfetti 1984).
What is automatic?
The Visual System
Reading problems are seldom caused by deficiencies in the ________ processing system alone.
(visual perception, eye movements, light sensitivity, scanning, depth perception, or focusing ability)
These problems exist but are independent of reading processes.
What is visual?
Shortly after Broca published his findings
on language deficits caused by damage
to Broca’s Area, Carl _________ began
pursuing his own research into the
effects of brain disease on speech and language. Wernicke noticed that not all language deficits were the result of damage to Broca's area. Rather he found that damage to the left posterior, superior temporal gyrus resulted in deficits in language ___________. This region is now referred to as Wernicke’s area, and the associated syndrome is known as Wernicke’s aphasia (receptive aphasia).
Who is Wernicke? and What is comprehension?
How Speech and Language Develops?
The first ____ years of life, when the brain is developing and maturing, is the most intensive period for acquiring speech and language skills.
Humans are “hard-wired” to learn to ______.
These skills develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others.
What is 1. three and 2. speak?
4-6 months:
Follows sounds with his or her eyes
Responds to changes in the _____ of your voice
Notices toys that make sounds
Pays attention to music
_________ in a speech-like way and uses many different sounds, including sounds that begin with p, b, and m
Laughs
Babbles when excited or unhappy
Makes gurgling sounds when alone or playing
with you
What is 1. tone and 2. babbles?
Speech or Language Disorder:
Children who have trouble producing speech sounds correctly or who hesitate or stutter when talking may have a speech disorder.
Childhood Apraxia of speech or ________ is a speech disorder that makes it difficult to put sounds and syllables together in the correct order to form words.
What is dyspraxia?
Bottom-up Theory
This model emphasizes that many subprocesses, such as ______ and _______ identification, must become automatic in order for readers to be _____. Further it implies teaching letter sound before words, words before sentences, and sentences before passages.
While several Orton-Gillingham remedial programs follow this model, __________ instruction is not absent, just not a major focus in the early grades (more likely not a focus until the child can read closer to grade level).
What is 1. letter and word identification, 2. fluent and 3. comprehension?
Four Processing Systems: Phonological Processor
rocesses the speech sound system.
We must teach:
Identification, comparison, and manipulation
of _________
Pronunciation of sounds and words
Memory for sounds and words
Links between sounds, spellings,
and meanings
What are sounds?
Samuel Orton (1925)
His studies led him to question why some children with apparently intact neurological functioning have language disabilities.
Reading problems stemmed from failure of the _____ hemisphere to become dominant over the right
Worked with Anna ________ who introduced a systematic approach for teaching “_________” to represent the ____ phonemes of English
What is 1. left, 2. Gillingham, 3. phonograms and 4. 44?
How Speech and Language Develops:
Children vary in their development of speech and language skills. However, they follow a natural progression or timetable for mastering the skills of language.
These milestones help doctors and other health professionals determine if a child is on track or if he or she may need extra help.
Sometimes a delay may be caused by ________, while other times it may be due to a _________or _____________disorder.
What is 1. hearing loss and 2. speech or language?
7 Months to a Year:
Enjoys playing peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake
Turns and looks in the direction of sounds
Listens when spoken to
Understands words for ________ items such as “cup,” “shoe,” or “juice”
Responds to requests (“Come here”)
Babbles to get and keep attention
What is common?
Nurturing Language Development:
Remember that parents, caregivers, teachers, and guardians are the chief resources in _________ development. Children learn much from each other, but adults are the main conversationalists, questioners, listeners, responders, and sustainers of language development and growth in the child-care center or classroom.
What is language?
Interactive Theory
Rumelhart (1977) proposed that rather than serial processing, simultaneous or parallel processing of word identification and word prediction occurs in reciprocal events.
Good readers access knowledge of the _______- ________ system, knowledge of particular sight words, knowledge of the syntactic and semantic aspects of language, background knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge of how to self-monitor during reading to extract meaning from text.
What is grapheme-phoneme?
The Orthographic Processor
Processes letters, letter patterns, and
whole words.
We must teach:
Recognition and formation of letters
Association of _________ with sounds
Attention to letter sequences and patterns
Fluent recognition of whole words
Recall of letters for spelling
What are letters?
Reading and the Brain:
Sally Shaywitz (2007)
_____ is able to peer inside the brain as a person reads
Determine (yes-no) if a pair of single-syllable, “non-sense” words rhyme (ex. rete-veet; mobe-haib)
What is an fMRI?
Oral Language Components
Oral language, the complex system that relates sounds to meanings, is made up of three components: the ___________, __________, and _________ (Lindfors, 1987).
What is phonological, semantic and syntactic?
1-2 Years:
Enjoys playing peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake
Turns and looks in the direction of sounds
Listens when spoken to
Understands words for ________ items such as “cup,” “shoe,” or “juice”
Responds to requests (“Come here”)
Babbles to get and keep attention
What is common?
Connectionist Model:
Seidenberg and McClelland reasoned that reading involves a series of associations or ________ resulting accumulated lexical knowledge with connections both ways between context and meaning, and then additional meaning, ortho- graphy, and phonology (i.e., meaning-orthography, orthography-phonology, and phonology-meaning).
Any two processes can trigger other associations in any direction and contribute to overall reading process.
What is connections?
The Meaning Processor:
We store word meanings in relation to:
Other words
Categories and concepts
Examples of word use in context
The sounds, spelling, and syllables
Meaningful parts
We must teach ________ with attention to all these areas.
What is vocabulary?
Semantic Content:
Is made up of ___________, the smallest units of meaning that may be combined with each other to make up words(for example, paper + s are the two morphemes that make up papers), and sentences (Brown, 1973). A dictionary contains the semantic component of a language, but also what words (and meanings) are important to the speakers of the language.
What are morphemes?
What is 2 to 3 Years?
Has a word for almost everything
Uses two- or three-word ________ to talk about and ask for things
Uses k, g, f, t, d, and n sounds
Speaks in a way that is understood by family members and friends
Names objects to ask for them or to direct attention to them
What are phrases?
True Balanced Literacy
First-order skills: ________ and ________ taught using systematic, direct instruction designed to highlight rule-based nature of
letter-sound system of English; taught in combination with
Second-order skills: comprehension and composition taught emphasizing the reciprocal relationship between reading and writing. (Farnham-Diggory, 1990; Adams, 1990)
What are decoding and encoding?
The Context Processor:
Interprets words we have heard, named, or partially identified, with reference to:
Language
Experience
Knowledge of the concepts
We teach the _________ that children need to interpret what they read.
What is background?
Syntactic:
Consists of the rules that enable us to combine morphemes into __________. As soon as a child uses two morphemes together, as in "more cracker," she is using a syntactic rule about how morphemes are combined to convey meaning.
What are sentences?
4-5 Years:
Pays attention to a short ______ and answers simple questions about it
Hears and understands most of what is said at home and in school
Uses sentences that give many details
Tells stories that stay on topic
Communicates easily with other children and adults
Says most sounds correctly except for a few (l, s, r, v, z, ch, sh, and th)
Uses _______ words
Names some letters and numbers
Uses adult grammar
What is 1. story and 2. rhyming?
Pragmatics:
The ____ of language use
Part of our communicative competence, our ability to speak appropriately in different situations, for example, in a conversational way at home and in a more formal way at a job interview.
What are the rules?