Tongzhi Restoration
Who was in charge of the Tongzhi Restoration?
Prince Gong/Empress Cixi
Who was in charge of this reform?
Emperor Guangxu
Who led the Revolutionary Alliance?
Sun Yat-Sen
Who was involved in this rebellion?
– The Boxers: poor and unemployed Chinese men.
– Christian missionaries (some killed by Boxers).
– Due to killing of Christian missionaries, European powers, Japan, and USA shut down the rebellion immediately.
Who drafted the Charter Oath?
Genro – Meiji elder statesmen (Satcho daimyo and samurai)
What were the goals of the Tongzhi Restoration?
– Learn Western military systems and technology to become stronger than the West
– Retain core Chinese principles
What caused the 100 Day's Reforms?
Defeat in Sino-Japanese War
What were the goals of the Revolution?
– Overthrow the Qing dynasty and establish a democracy modeled after the USA or Great Britain.
What caused the Boxer Rebellion?
– After loss of Opium wars, European powers had control over much of China's economic policy.
– Drought/famine in Northern China –> discontent.
– China asked modernized military –> lost internal battles/rebellion.
– Missionaries in China causing discontent, Boxers viewed them as colonization.
What modernizations took place?
– Modernization of military.
– Centralized government.
– Abolishing the feudal system.
– Economic reforms (market-based system).
– Industrialization (reduce dependence on imports).
– Education reforms (create a literate and skilled workforce).
– Cultural reform (accepting Western knowledge).
What limited the Tongzhi Restoration?
– Scope limited to: firearms, ships, communication, mining, and light industry. Military, but no other areas.
– No attempts to borrow Western institutions or culture.
– No breakthrough in mass industrialization.
– Little change in government system.
– Movement did not affect majority of Chinese people.
What did the reforms do?
– 40 edicts.
– New system of national schools and colleges, not based on the Civil Service Exam.
– Civil Service Exam based on Confucian classics abolished.
– Government administration improved.
– Western industry, medicine, science, and commerce adopted.
– Law code changed; military reformed.
– Corruption attacked (Mandate of Heaven).
What caused the revolution?
– 1905: Civil Service Exam abolished –> corruption, collapsing infrastructure, frustration.
– Death of empress Cixi –> power vacuum.
– China in debt from Tongzhi Restoration failure.
– Growing nationalism.
What was the significance of the Boxer Rebellion?
– Many deaths, mostly civilians, Chinese Christians, and foreign nationals.
– Destruction of fortifications around Beijing/elsewhere.
– Qing dynasty greatly weakened (anti-foreign groups forcibly disbanded, increased foreign influence, Republic Of China established the next year).
What was the Iwakura Mission?
– Japanese diplomatic mission to Western nations.
– Goals to build positive relations with the West, earn Western respect, gain knowledge of Western business patterns, science, and government.
– Leaders, government officials, and students go to USA and Europe.
What were the effects of the limitations?
– China loses the Sino-Japanese War over Korea.
What was the significance of these reforms?
– All reversed except for the modern school system.
– Civil Service exam re-established.
– Went beyond military, unlike the Self-Strengthening Movement.
What effect did the revolution have?
– Downfall of Qing and dynastic system.
– Established Republic of China.
– Fewer disparities in education.
– Western modernization accepted.
What were the Key Events of the rebellion?
– The Boxers lead peasants in rebellion.
– The Boxers take siege of Beijing, causing foreign forces to get involved in stopping the rebellion.
– The Boxer Protocol is signed, and the rebellion ends.
What were the terms of the Charter Oath?
– Assemblies established to discuss any decisions in an open discussion.
– All classes would work together to carry out the state policies.
– Everyone should be able to pursue their goals.
– Old, "evil" customs ended, and new customs based on the "just laws of Nature".
– Knowledge will be sought throughout the world to strengthen the Emperor.
Historiography: Why does Immanuel Hsu say the Tongzhi Restoration failed?
– Lack of coordination.
– Limited vision.
– Lack of popular participation.
– Shortage of capital.
– Foreign Imperialism.
– Technical Backwardness.
– Lack of Interest.
What resistance were these reforms met with?
– Led by Empress Cixi, conservative resistance.
– Threatened by removal of Civil Service Exam, military reform, and attack on corruption.
– Conservatives, army, and Empress Cixi remove Emperor Guangxu from power.
Historiography: What did Hsu and Gray say about the revolution?
– Hsu: the republican revolution led to misery and lawlessness, rather than peace and order.
– Gray: Sun Yat-Sen first asked Li Hongzhang to support moderate reforms. When this was denied, then he turned to revolution.
Historiography: What does Paul A. Cohen say about the rebellion?
– Combined all social and economic issues in the Qing dynasty at the time.
– If government had moved earlier against the Boxers, they may have put the rebellion down successfully without foreign aid.
Historiography: What does Eri Hotta say about the 1882 Imperial Rescript for Soldiers and Sailors?
This decree was an underlying cause of Japan's 1930s militarization and later, attack on Pearl Harbor.