Nervous
Name the 3 layers of the meninges
Dura, Arachnoid, and Pia
What two hormones are produced by the kidneys?
Renin and Erythropoietin
Name two types of hemolytic anemia
Sickle Cell anemia
Thalassemia
Hereditary spherocytosis
Compare and contrast primary vs secondary gout:
Both form from excessive retention of uric acid from the kidneys. Primary has no known identifiable cause; secondary has a known disorder.
Define a neoplastic cell
What are the common signs of a stroke?
Facial Weakness, slurred speech, arm weakness
What disease has a key defining feature of tea or coffee colored urine?
Glomerulonephritis
Two categories of metabolic acidosis causes
Loss of bicarbonate in wasting (kidney failure, diarrhea, etc)
Bicarbonate use for buffering (Gain of fixed acids, lactic acid, DKA, etc).
Diagnostic indicators of osteomyelitis:
A. Decreased D-dimer
B. Negative bone scan
C. Positive bone cultures
D. Fever
C and D
Name two ways a cancer cell can metastasize:
Direct spreading through diffusion
Circulation through the blood or lymphatic system
Direct transportation from one site or another
Demyelination occurs in:
A) MS
B) GBS
C) ALS
D) Alzheimer’s
MS and GBS
Name 3 tests that can help diagnose kidney failure:
BUN
GFR
Creatinine
List two causes of polycythemia:
Chronic lung disease
High altitude exposure
Erythropoietin-secreting tumor
Chronic hypoxemia
List 5 risk factors for osteoporosis:
Low calcium intake
Sedentary lifestyle
Estrogen deficiency
Hormonal imbalance
Faulty protein metabolism
Prolonged steroids or heparin
Paralysis
Alcoholism
Liver disease
Scurvy
A 60-year-old smoker presents with chronic cough and hemoptysis. Chest CT shows a centrally located mass near the hilum. Biopsy reveals oat cells with scant cytoplasm that stain positive for neuroendocrine markers. What is the most likley cause?
Small cell lung cancer is central, aggressive, associated with smoking
Neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques help diagnose....
Alzheimers
Renin plays a role in which of the following?
A. Fluid elimination
B. Vascular constriction
C. Blood pressure regulation
D. Red blood cell synthesis
C
List the types of anemia and provide one cause of each:
Aplastic anemia - Idiopathic or Secondary to cytotoxic drugs, radiation ,or viral infections
Hemolytic anemia:
- Sickle Cell anemia
- Thalassemia
- Hereditary spherocytosis
- Hemolytic disease of the newborn or transfusion reactions
Iron Deficiency anemia:
- Increased loss of iron
- Inadequate iron intake or absorption
- Increased iron consumption
Pernicious anemia:
- deficiency of B12
List the 3 types of muscle:
List the 3 types of cartilage:
List the 3 types of joints and provide 1 example:
-Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
- Hyaline, Fibrous and Elastic
- Synarthrosis: Non-moveable, skull
- Amphiarthrosis: Slight movement, vertebrae
- Diarthrosis: Free movement, knees, elbows, shoulders
Contrast Orchitis vs Testicular Torsion:
Orchitis is generally results from infection/inflammation. It has a gradual onset, fever, and swelling. Generally require antibiotics
Torsion results from twisting/ischemia, typically from a physical insult. It has a more sudden onset, higher pain levels, and loss of blood flow. Always requires surgery.
Differentiate between Myasthenia Gravis and Guillain-Barré
Myasthenia Gravis is an autoimmune disorder causing fatigable muscle weakness from antibodies blocking acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Typically, a descending pattern.
Guillain-Barré Syndrome is an acute autoimmune condition that causes ascending paralysis and loss of reflexes due to demyelination of peripheral nerves.
A 55-year-old man presents with flank pain and difficulty urinating. Ultrasound reveals dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces with thinning of the renal cortex. Which of the following best explains the underlying cause of this finding?
A. Metabolic waste deposition in the glomeruli
B. Obstruction of urine flow, causing hydronephrosis
C. Destruction of tubular cells due to ischemia
D. Formation of calcium deposits within renal tissue
Obstruction of urine flow, causing back pressure on the kidney. This back pressure stretches and dilates the renal pelvis and calyces, compressing renal tissue and causing thinning of the cortex, exactly what the ultrasound shows in the question.
Describe DIC and 2 pertinent lab findings:
Activation of the clotting cascade leads to the formation of microthrombi throughout the vasculature. This excessive clotting consumes platelets and clotting factors, eventually resulting in uncontrolled bleeding.
Long PT and PTT
Increased INR
Elevated D-dimer
Thrombocytopenia
A 28-year-old man presents with severe muscle pain and dark-colored urine after intense exercise. Labs reveal elevated creatine kinase and myoglobin.What is the most likely cause?
Rhabdomyolysis
Contrast Endometriosis and Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
PCOS originates from a hormone imbalance. It causes irregular cycles, metabolic issues, amenorrhea, and hirsutism. Diagnosed with increased LH with normal FSH. The goal is to inhibit LH and FSH.
Endometriosis results from ectopic endometrial tissue outside the endometrium. It causes cyclical pain, adhesions, and potentially infertility.