Identification
Put this argument in Premise/Conclusion form:
"God exists, for the world is an organized system and all organized systems must have a creator. The creator of the world is God."
1. The world is an organized system.
2. Every organized system must have a creator.
.: The world has a creator, God
1. P > Q
2. Q > R
3. P
.: R
Valid
Inductive Argument
When the truth of the premises makes the conclusion likely, but not certain.
Criticizing the person making the argument, not the argument itself.
What is the Ad hominem fallacy?
Identify the Conclusion:
Does the position of a car driver's seat have a significant impact on driving safety? It probably does. Driving position affects both comfort and the ability to see the road clearly. A driver who is uncomfortable eventually becomes fatigued, which makes it difficult to concentrate on the road. Likewise, the better the visibility from the driver's seat, the more aware the driver can be of road conditions and other vehicles.
The position of the drivers seat can affect safety.
Some philosophers are not eccentric. All eccentrics are annoying. So some philosophers are not annoying.
Not Valid (we could be annoying for other reasons)
Extension/Intension
Ex: "The morning star and the evening star have the same extension, but a different intension"
Extension: external (spatio-temporal) content
Intension: internal (mental) content
A bandwagon fallacy, an appeal to the popularity of the claim as the reason for accepting the claim.
What is the Ad populum fallacy?
Identify an Unstated Part of the Argument:
Some people like to have green carnations on St. Patrick's Day. But flowers that are naturally green are extremely rare. Thus, it is very difficult for plant breeders to produce green carnations. Before St. Patrick's Day, then, it is wise for florists to stock up on white carnations, which are fairly inexpensive and quite easy to dye green.
that Florists should be willing to lie to their customers (about green carnations)
OR
that people will not mind having died green carnations
OR
that Florists should try to sell as many flowers as possible
ect, ect.
A team of researchers at Loma Linda University in the United States has shown vegetarian men live for an average of 10 years longer than non-vegetarian men — 83 years compared to 73 years.
.: Ending the consumption of meat will increase your own lifespan.
Not Valid (Could it be that vegetarian men engage in other habits healthy habits more often than non-vegetarian men? This argument might be Inductively Strong - but not Deductively Valid)
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
Ex: "I have a fever this morning because of the dinner I ate last night"
When you assume that because something happened before an event, that it caused that event.
When one has been accused of wrongdoing by diverting attention to an issue irrelevant to the one at hand.
What is Evading the Issue, Red Herring?
Identify the Argument Structure:
Robert knows Latin if and only if he doesn't know Greek. He does know Greek. So, Robert doesn't know Latin.
(L = Robert knows Latin)
(G = Robert knows Greek)
1. L ≡ -G
2. G
:. -L
1. P > Q
2. R > S
3. -Q v -S
.: -P v -R
Valid
Confirmation Bias
Ex: "78 percent of United States citizens believe that they have above average intelligence"
When our desire for a particular outcome affects our ability to evaluate the outcome
Intentionally restricting the number of alternatives, thereby omitting relevant information.
What is the fallacy of False Dilemmas?
Identify the Argument Structure:
Some employees must be let go, if the budget is reduced. There won't be a pay increase unless the budget is not frozen. The budget will be either reduced or frozen. So, some employees must be let go, or there won't be a pay increase.
(L = employees let go)
(R = budget reduced)
(F = budget is frozen)
(P = there will be a pay increase)
1. R > L
2. F > -P
3. R v F
.: L v -P
No philosopher is illogical; Jones keeps making argumentative blunders; no logical person keeps making argumentative blunders; all existentialists are philosophers; so, Jones is not an existentialist.
1. P(philosopher) > L(logical)
2. J(jones) > B(blunder)
3. L > -B
4. E(existentialist) > P
.: J > -E
Valid
Episteme
Ex: "Because of the episteme of the time-period, midwives were unable to contribute to the early development of the medical field.
The orderly 'unconscious' structures underlying the production of scientific knowledge in a particular time and place.
Arguing that something is true because "It Works", even though the cause of the something and the outcome are not demonstrated.
What is the pragmatic fallacy?