The State
A free rider
is an individual who benefits from a public good without contributing to its creation or maintenance
Procedural Justice
Focuses on the fairness of the processes used to make decisions and distribute resources. (John Rawls)
Natural Law
Philosophers like Thomas Aquinas and John Locke posited that certain rights are inherent to human beings, derived from natural law. These rights, often seen as inalienable, should form the basis for legal recognition.
John Rawls' Difference Principle
It stipulates that inequalities in wealth and power are just only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.
Radical Feminism
Argues that patriarchy, a system of male dominance, is the root cause of gender oppression. Advocates for a radical restructuring of society to dismantle patriarchal structures.
Liberalism
Emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, but also recognizes the need to balance these with the rights of others. (John Locke, John Stuart Mill)
Authoritarianism
Power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small group. Limited political freedoms and restricted civil society. (e.g., Russia)
Different Forms of Equality
Equality of Opportunity: Ensures everyone has a fair chance to succeed, regardless of background. This form of equality focuses on removing barriers to opportunity.
Equality of Outcome: Everyone has the same level of wealth, resources, and social standing. This concept is more radical and raises questions about individual freedom and effort.
Positive Liberty
Definition: Freedom to act in a way that is self-determined and fulfilling, often requiring enabling conditions such as education, healthcare, and economic opportunity. It emphasizes the capacity to control one's life.
John Locke's contractarianism
is founded on the concept of natural rights, which individuals possess in a state of nature. To protect these rights, individuals enter into a social contract, forming a government with limited powers. The state's primary function is to protect life, liberty, and property. Locke's theory emphasizes individual rights and limited government intervention.
Rawlsian Justice as Fairness
People in an "original position" of ignorance (not knowing their social status) would choose principles for a just society. These principles prioritize fairness and equal opportunity, with a safety net for the least advantaged.
Libertarianism
This philosophy extends the principles of liberalism to their logical extreme, arguing for minimal government intervention in all aspects of life.
Conservatism
Gradual change and respect for tradition.
Emphasis on social order, stability, and national unity.
Importance of family and moral values.
Limited government intervention, but with a role in promoting social order and national security.
Friedrich Hayek's critique of social justice
Undefined Distributive Justice: Hayek argued that "social justice" often referred to achieving a specific outcome in terms of wealth distribution. However, he believed there was no objective standard for determining a "just" distribution.
Central Planning vs. Spontaneous Order: Hayek advocated for free markets and spontaneous order, where economic decisions are decentralized and influenced by millions of individuals interacting. He saw attempts to achieve social justice through central planning as unrealistic and potentially destructive to this order.
The Harm Principle
John Stuart Mill's "harm principle" provides a crucial framework for determining when government intervention is justified. Essentially, the only legitimate reason for restricting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. Activities that do not harm others should generally be free from legal interference.