The Study of Life
What is the grouping or classification of species called and how is the human species known as?
The scientific grouping or classification of species is called taxonomy.The human species is known as homosapien.
What are the components and function of a nucleotide?
Phosphate group
five-carbon sugar
nitrogenous base
Nucleotides make up in DNA and RNA. DNA has deoxyribose as sugar. In RNA has ribose as sugar.
What are the two types of membrane transport? Give examples.
Passive: moves substances across the membrane without requiring energy from the cell. Ex. diffusion, osmosis
Active: requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient. Ex. pumps, endocytosis
What is the first and second law of thermodynamics?
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
The second law of thermodynamics states energy transfer increases the entropy of the universe.
Is the process by which plants and some bacteria convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into chemical energy stored in organic molecules, such as sugars, and release oxygen as a byproduct.
Photosynthesis
Draw the central dogma on the board
DNA-RNA-PROTEIN
DNA TO RANA= TRANSCRIPTION
RNA TO PROTEI= TRANSLATION
What are phospholipids composed of and what is their function:
Composed of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. Their function is to form the cell membrane structure.
What is the difference between Endocytosis and Exocytosis?
Endocytosis and exocytosis are both active transport processes where cells move materials across their membrane in opposite directions. Endocytosis is the process of bringing materials into the cell, while exocytosis is the process of releasing materials out of the cell
What is the function of enzymes and which ones are required for DNA synthesis?
Enzymes are biological catalysts, that accelerate chemical reactions.
For DNA synthesis:
Helicase
Primase
DNA polymerase
Ligase
ATP synthesis
What is chlorophyll and what role does it play in photosynthesis?
Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy, primarily from the blue and red parts of the spectrum, to power photosynthesis.
Name the parts of an atom and their charge:
. Proton (positive charge)
. Neutron
. Electron (negative charge)
. Nucleus
What is the denaturation of protein?
Protein denaturation is the process where a protein loses its specific three-dimensional structure, known as its conformation, due to various factors like heat, pH changes, or chemicals.
What are phagocytosis and pinocytosis?
Phagocytosis: involves a cell engulfing large particles, such as bacteria or cellular debris. (Cell eating)
Pinocytosis: involves engulfing small amounts of extracellular fluid and dissolved substances. (Cell drinking)
What is fermentation? What are the two types of fermentation and the product of each?
Fermentation: is an anaerobic process, where microbes, like bacteria and yeast, convert carbohydrates into acids, gases, or alcohol.
Lactic acid fermentation: pyruvate accepts electrons from NADH producing 2 lactate.
Alcoholic fermentation: pyruvic acid is converted into 2 ethanol.
Light-dependent reaction vs Light-independent reaction
Location:
Function:
Light-dependent reaction
Location: Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
Function: Capture light energy and convert it into ATP, NADPH and oxygen.
Light-independent reaction
Location: Stroma of chloroplasts.
Function: Uses ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into Glucose, ADP, and NADP+.
How is atomic number determined? If an atom has 8 protons what it's atomic number?
The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus of its atoms. If a atom has 8 protons it's atomic number is 8.
Name the levels of protein structure:
Primary:is the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
Secondary:involves localized folding patterns like alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets.
Tertiary:is the overall three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain.
Quaternary:describes the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a multi-subunit protein.
How are the three ways that water moves across membranes in different environments?
Isotonic: Solute concentrations are equal on the outside and inside of cells. Meaning there's no net movement of water across the membrane.
Hypotonic: Solution with a lower concentration than inside of cell, water moves into the cell causing the cell to swell and potentially burst.
Hypertonic: Outside solution with a higher concentration than inside of cell water moves out of the cell causing the cell to shrink.
What is Cellular Respiration and what are the steps in order?
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose to release energy in the form of ATP.
Steps:
Glycolosis
Pyruvate Processing
Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb's Cycle)
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
What are carotenoids and their role in photosynthesis?
Carotenoids are a group of pigments responsible for the yellow, orange, and red colors in autum.
Roles:
Absorb light in the blue-green and green, which chlorophyll does not absorb as effectively.
Energy absorbed by carotenoids is transferred to chlorophyll molecules
Help protect the plant from photooxidative damage caused by excess light
Degregation of chlorophyil
Covalent bonds: Formed when electrons are shared.
Hydrogen bonds: Weak bonds between molecules due to partial charge.
Ionic bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred.
Peptide bonds: Bonds between amino acids in
proteins.
List and describe the 5 types of polysaccharides:
Starch: composed of glucose monomers and the primary energy storage molecule in plants.
Glycogen: the primary energy storage in form of glucose molecule in animals and some fungi.
Cellulose: is a complex carbohydrate that provides structural support in plant cell walls.
Chitin: is a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that serves as a structural support in the exoskeletons of insects, crustaceans, and in the cell walls of fungi.
In what ways does endocytosis differ from exocytosis, and how are both processes important for cellular communication?
Endocytosis is the process by which the cell membrane engulfs extracellular material, forming vesicles that bring the material into the cell.
Exocytosis involves the fusion of intracellular vesicles with the plasma membrane to expel contents from the cell.
Both processes are crucial for cellular communication as they enable the cell to take in signaling molecules and release them allowing for intercellular communication and regulation.
What is the input and output in each step of cellular respiration?
Glycolosis:
Inputs: Glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+
Outputs: 2 Pyruvate, 4 ATP (2 net), 2 NADH + H+
Pyruvate Processing:
Inputs: a three-carbon pyruvate, coenzyme A (CoA), and NAD+
Output: two-carbon acetyl CoA, NADH, and CO2
Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb's Cycle):
Inputs: 2 Pyruvate (from Glycolysis), 2 CoA
Outputs: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 CO
Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
Inputs: 10 NADH+, 2 FADH2
Outputs: 10 NAD+, 2 FAD, ATP
In photosynthesis how is light energy converted into chemical energy and what role do ATP and NADPH play in this transformation?
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments in the thylakoid membranes, exciting electrons to a higher energy state.
These high-energy electrons are passed through the electron transport chain, leading to the production of ATP and NADPH.
The ATP and NADPH produced are then used in the Calvin cycle, where they provide the energy and electrons needed to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.