Alanine
Alanine is used to transfer _____ groups from the muscle to the liver during conditions of illness, fasting, and low carbohydrate stores.
amino
Deamination is the process of removing an amino group from amino acid to produce ______ and requires the coenzyme vitamin B6 (PLP).
ammonium/ammonia
Glutamine is one of the main forms of _____ transport in the blood stream.
ammonia
HCl produced by parietal cells is necessary to denature proteins and activate _____ from pepsinogen produced by the chief cells.
pepsin
Transamination is the process of transferring an amino group from an amino acid to an alpha-keto acid (typically ______, a key intermediate in the TCA cycle).
alpha-ketoglutarate
Glutamate created from the transamination of _____, transfers an amine group to pyruvate to form alanine and alpha-ketoglutarate.
leucine
Glutamate, histidine, serine, glycine, and threonine are typically deaminated. Enzymes that catalyze deamination reactions are called deaminases or _____ (loss of water accompanies reaction).
dehydratases
In the skeletal muscle, glutamine is formed from 1) transamination of ______ amino acids and 2) deamination of AMP as a consequence of high use of ATP during exercise.
branched-chain
Bicarbonate and pro-enzymes (zymogens) from the ______ are transported to the small intestine for continued peptide and oligopetide digestion.
pancreas
Transamination requires _____ (PLP) as a vitamin coenzyme and typically produces non-essential (dispensable) amino acids or is the first step in amino acid catabolism.
vitamin B6
Alanine is released from the muscle into the bloodstream and taken to the _____.
liver
Additional sources of ammonia besides deamination are deamidation of glutamine and asparagine, ingestion and absorption from foods (cheeses, processed meats), and production from colonic bacteria generation that is absorbed through the _____ into the body.
enterocyte
Glutamine cellular needs increase in ______ conditions such as infection and trauma and is used for many purposes besides ammonia transport.
hypercatabolic
Proenzymes are converted to active enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypepsides) that hydrolyze peptide bonds to form tri- and dipeptides and free ______.
amino acids
For example, the enzyme ALT transfers an amine group from the amino acid alanine to the alpha-keto acid alpha-ketoglutarate and forms the alpha-keto acid pyruvate and the amino acid ______.
glutamate
Glutamate can undergo deamination to provide ammonia for _____ synthesis.
urea
_______ catalyzes the addition of ammonia to alpha-ketoglutarate to form glutamate.
Glutamate dehydrogenase
Glutamine 1) promotes health and proliferation of immune cells, 2) is a needed component for purine and pyrimidine synthesis, 3) is a component of cytokines and cell surface proteins that activate the immune system, 4) produces stress-related proteins, and 5) prevents atrophy of the intestine and protects against bacterial ______.
translocation
A diverse set of transporters are used to absorb free amino acids into the enterocyte while different transporters absorbs tri- and dipeptides which are broken down to free amino acids in the _____.
enterocyte
ALT is an important enzyme found in high amounts in the liver, but also fund in the heart and kidneys. The enzyme AST transfers the amino group from the amino acid aspartate to the alpha-keto acid alpha-ketoglutarate to form glutamate and _______.
oxaloacetate
The pyruvate is converted to glucose through metabolic pathway, ______, and released in the bloodstream and taken back to the muscle to be oxidized through glycolysis. The alanine-glucose cycle has two main functions: 1) transport nitrogen to the liver for conversion to urea and 2) allow for regeneration of glucose to be used for fuel in the muscle.
gluconeogenesis
__________ is the first step in the urea cycle that catalyzes the synthesis of carbamoyl phosphate from ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Carbamoyl phosphate synthatase 1
Glutamine supplementation may be recommended for the critically ill and administration of alanyl-glutamine or glycyl-glutamine is needed in ______ administration to prevent deamination.
enteral or IV
Amino acids are exported into the _____ and travel unassisted. The liver takes up 50-65% of amino acids from portal blood after a meal.
bloodstream
Lysine, histidine, and threonine cannot undergo _____.
transamination