General
3 goals of experimental psychology
2. Explain why this happens?
3. Predict how people might feel, think, behave
Steps of Scientific Research Method
1. Formulate a question
2. Literature Review
3. Form a Hypothesis
4. Design a study
5. Conduct, Analyze, Report
3 steps of memory
Encoding
Storage (consolidation)
Retrieval
Stimulus response theory
Idea that learning and behaviour can be explained by interactions between stimuli and the responses they evoke
Stimulus = external event
Response = behavior that results from stimulus
Reinforcement = the consequences of the behavior that either strengthen or weaken it
Confirmation bias
A cognitive bias where individuals tend to seek out, interpret, and remember information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses, while ignoring or discounting evidence that contradicts them
Explicit vs Implicit Memory
Explicit: fact EX: state capital
Implicit: procedural EX: muscle memory for tying shoes
A hypothesis must be
2. Falsifiable
3. Operational Definition (explained clearly)
4. Determine Independent and Dependent variables
What is the cocktail party effect?
The ability to focus on a single sound, like a conversation, while filtering out other sounds in a noisy environment
Habituation
When a person becomes accustomed to a stimulus and their response to it decreases
Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid intelligence is the ability to think flexibly and solve new problems
Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use knowledge from past learning
What is Network Theory
Memories are stored in a complex web of nodes, nodes/memories are linked to eachother
Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
Descriptive statistics state facts and proven outcomes from a population
Inferential statistics analyze samplings to make predictions about larger populations
What is your working memory?
Short-term memory, what you are focused on at any given point in time
Limited working memory, 7 + or - pieces of information
Serial position effect/recency/primacy effect cognitive bias that describes how people are more likely to remember items at the beginning and end of a list, but have difficulty remembering items in the middle
Classical conditioning
An unconscious process where an automatic, conditioned response becomes associated with a specific stimulus
Test Q: You used to rollerblade a lot, but you haven’t done so in a few years. You remember exactly where your rollerblades are in your closet at home, and you find that you can still rollerblade quite well. Your memory for where your rollerblades are stored is a type of ____ memory, and your memory for knowing how to rollerblade is a type of ____ memory.
Declarative, procedural
Examples of Interference
Retroactive is newly acquired information interferes with the retrieval of previously learned information
Proactive is previously learned information makes it difficult to learn or remember new information
Misinformation / false memories is when misleading information distorts a person's memory of an event
What is the Nuremberg Code
A set of ethical guidelines for human experimentation
Mnemonic
Any strategy that can be used to enhance the encoding of memory:
Chunking, Maintenance rehearsal, Method of loci
Reinforcers
Positive reinforcers are Rewards that strengthen behaviors
Negative reinforcers are Punishments that weaken behaviors
Primary reinforcers are Basic needs like food, water, and shelter
Secondary reinforcers are Stimuli that are associated with primary reinforcers
Generalized reinforcers are Secondary reinforcers that are associated with more than one primary reinforcer
TEST Q: Suppose a researcher studying the effect of having a pet on elderly people’s subjective well-being does NOT use a control group in his study. This will weaken what type of validity for the study?
TEST Q: You used to live on the third floor of your apartment building, but you recently moved up to the fourth floor. After your move, you keep accidentally pushing the elevator button for the third floor. What is the most likely reason for this mix-up?
The memory of your old floor number proactively interferes with the memory of your new floor number.
Internal vs. External validity
External validity is the extent to which your conclusions can be applied to other situations, people, or times
Internal validity is the degree of confidence that the conclusions of a study are valid within the context of the study itself
What part of the brain is critical for the formation of memory
Hippocampus
Observational Learning
A process in psychology where individuals acquire new behaviors, attitudes, or knowledge by observing and imitating the actions of others
TEST Q: In a memory experiment, Dr. Pez reads students a list of types of fish. Here is the list: salmon, koi, beta, trout, eel, snapper, tuna, angler, guppy. After reading the list, the experimenter asks the students to count backwards from 50. If the experimenter then asks students to recall as many of the listed fish as they can, which of the of the following pairs of fish are most likely to be remembered?
Salmon, Koi