Psychological Development

Overview of Psychological Development

100

Define heredity and environment as used in psychology.

• heredity: transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring via genes at the time of conception
• environment: all the experiences, objects and events to which people are exposed throughout their lifetimes

200

Why psychologists interested in the role that heredity and environment play in shaping psychological development?

• how hereditary and environmental factors combine or interact to influence/shape psychological development
• how much hereditary and environmental factors each contribute to the development of particular psychological characteristics.

300

Name and describe the three domains in the biopsychosocial model with reference to relevant examples.

• biological: physiologically (biologically) based or determined factors/influences, e.g. genes, neurochemistry, brain and nervous system functioning, bodily responses to stress, response to medication etc.
• psychological: factors/influences associated with mental processes/thoughts and feelings, e.g. effects of early experience, patterns of thinking, perceptions, emotional reactivity etc.
• social: factors/ influences associated with interpersonal relationships and the external social world/environment, interactions with others, the range and quality of our social relationships, access to social support, social stressors, cultural traditions and values, socioeconomic status etc.

400

Distinguish between sensitive and critical periods in psychological development with reference to two key points.

• sensitive periods tend to start and end gradually, whereas critical periods usually have identifiable start and end times and tend to begin and end suddenly 
• sensitive periods are optimal times for exposure to specific experiences and optimal times for learning due to those experiences, whereas critical periods involve vulnerability to deprivation/absence of specific experiences 
• a developmental change associated with a sensitive period can still occur outside that period (with greater difficulty), but will not occur at all if associated with a critical period e.g. imprinting

500

If a child has not acquired their native language by a certain age, is it possible that the child will never master the language? Explain your answer.

• there may be a sensitive period for native language acquisition (especially speech) up to the age of about 12 years and which starts to close at about 5–7 years 
• the sensitive period is the optimal time for oral language development (but not the only time) e.g. we are more sensitive to speech differences relevant to the language environment and less sensitive to differences important in other languages 

Emotional Development

100

Define the meaning of attachment

Attachment: the emotional bond which forms between an infant and another person

200

Differentiate between stranger and separation anxiety

Stranger anxiety: the distress and uneasiness experienced by young children when they are around people who are unfamiliar to them 

Separation anxiety: indicated by the distress and uneasiness when away (or facing the prospect of being away) from the person or people to whom they are attached  

300

Suggest two other potential influences on the formation of the attachment relationship, besides contact comfort.

Potential influences may include genes, temperament, constrained environment, absence of privation

400

List three behaviours that infants could show as an indicator of attachment  

• Behaviours may include:

– crying when in a stranger’s arms

– crying when left alone

– clinging to the caregiver

– calling out for the caregiver

– lifting up arms for a cuddle when seeing the caregiver.

500

Name and describe four attachment types

• secure attachment: infant feels secure, safe and confident
• insecure avoidant attachment: infant is distant and protective of itself
• insecure resistant attachment: infant is uncertain and anxious; constantly checks
• disorganised attachment: infant is insecure and shows inconsistent or odd and contradictory behaviours when separated from or reunited with their caregiver

Cognitive Development

100

Explain the meaning of adaptation in relation to Piaget’s theory

Adaptation: taking in, processing, organising and using new information in ways that enable us to adjust to changes in our environment

200

Explain what Piaget meant by the term schema.

schema: a mental idea of what something is and how to act on it/ an organised mental representation of what something is and how to deal with it/‘a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning’

300

Explain with examples, the two vital adaptation processes identified by Piaget.

assimilation: taking in new information and fitting it into and making it part of a pre-existing mental idea about objects or experiences 

accommodation: changing/adjusting a pre-existing mental idea in order to fit new information into this idea

400

Explain the first and second stages of Piagets theory of cognitive development, including the age ranges and accomplishments of each stage

Sensorimotor (0-2y): object permanence: understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be seen, heard or touched; goal-directed behaviour: perform and successfully complete a sequence of actions with a particular purpose in mind

Pre-operational (2-7y): symbolic thinking; egocentric — primarily from their perspective; animism — assuming all objects have some kind of consciousness; centration — focusing on only one feature at a time; transformation: understanding that something can change from one state to another; reversibility: the ability to mentally follow a sequence of events or line of reasoning back to its starting point

500

Explain the third and fourth stages of Piagets theory of cognitive development, including the age ranges and accomplishments of each stage

Concrete operational (7-12y): conservation: understanding that certain properties of an object can remain the same even when its appearance changes e.g. volume, mass, number and length; classification: ability to organise objects or events into categories based on common features that set them apart from other categories; concrete thinking — through what they know and what they can experience through their senses; 

Formal operational (12y+): more complex thought processes and thinking are apparent; thinking becomes increasingly sophisticated; abstract thinking; logical thinking; idealistic thinking; setting goals and making plans for the future

Typical & Atypical Behaviour

100

Adaptive behaviour primarily involves _____ in everyday life. 

a) excellence

b) obedience

c) independence

d) adjustment

d) adjustment

200

Distinguish between atypical and maladaptive behaviour

• atypical behaviour: behaviour that differs markedly from what is expected in a given situation
• maladaptive behaviour: behaviour that impedes effective adjustment to the environment/fulfilment of typical roles in society and impacts daily functioning

300

Distinguish between typical and atypical behaviour

• typical behaviour: behaviour that is appropriate and expected in a given situation
• atypical behaviour: behaviour that differs markedly from what is expected in a given situation

400

Explain when atypical psychological development would be of concern to a mental health professional

atypical development raises concerns when it is persistent, is evident across different situations in everyday life, and results in maladaptive behaviour i.e. interferes with the ability to successfully adjust to the environment.

500

Identify and explain 5 perspective that can be considered to classify typical or atypical behaviour

Social norms: widely held standard that governs what people should and should not do in different situations, especially in relation to others 

Cultural perspectives: each culture and ethnic group within that culture has its own set of norms about what is considered acceptable behaviour 

Statistical rarity: typical and atypical behaviour can be determined by how often or how rarely they occur. Large majority of people, called the ‘statistical average’, behave in a certain way, it is considered to be typical behaviour 

Personal distress: Generally, if the personal distress is a reasonable response to such events and is appropriate in their culture, then it is likely to be considered typical rather than atypical behaviour 

Maladaptive behaviour: any behaviour that is detrimental, counterproductive or otherwise interferes with the individual’s ability to successfully adjust  (‘adapt’) to the environment and fulfil their typical roles in society 

Normality and Neurotypicality

100

The term _____ is used to describe thoughts, feelings or behaviours that differ from what is considered normal, typical, usual or healthy. 

Neurotypical, neurotypicality, normality, abnormality

Abnormality

200

A significant limitation of the use of the term normality is that:

a) No person can truly be considered to be normal from any perspective.no person can truly be considered to be normal from any perspective.

B) there is no universally accepted single definition of normality in psychology.there is no universally accepted single definition of normality in psychology.

C) its definition and meaning does not vary enough in different societies or cultures.its definition and meaning does not vary enough in different societies or cultures.

D) it is too narrow a concept to be used in relation to mental health and wellbeing.

D) it is too narrow a concept to be used in relation to mental health and wellbeing. 

300

Describe autism along with examples of some key characteristics

autism as a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by difficulties with social communication, social interaction and restricted/repetitive, routine type behaviours, interests and activities.

• Delay in speech development
• Little or no initiation of social interaction or sharing of emotions
• Being more or less sensitive than other people to sensory input 

400

Describe ADHD along with examples of some key characteristics

ADHD as a disorder characterised by a persistent pattern of inattention, and/or hyperactive-impulsive behaviour that adversely affects every day functioning

• inattention: significant difficulty maintaining their attention on tasks that do not provide a high level of stimulation, e.g. easily distracted with difficulty concentrating and listening for longer than 1-2 minutes
• hyperactivity: excessive motor activity and difficulties with remaining still, e.g. constantly fidgeting
• impulsivity: acting on the spur of the moment in response to immediate stimuli, without a plan or consideration of the risks or consequences, e.g. blurting out a thought mid-conversation

500

Explain the 3 types of learning disabilities outlined in this unit

Dyslexia is a learning disability characterised by significant difficulties with accurate and fluent word reading, spelling and writing words. 

Dyscalculia is a condition that affects the ability to acquire mathematical concepts and skills. It is a specific learning disability that impairs learning and understanding of number concepts and calculations 

Dyspraxia is a condition that affects coordination of physical movements, which may include muscles for speaking. It is a specific learning disability that impairs acquisition and/or execution of skills required for motor coordination and possibly speech.