Classical + Operant Conditioning Terms
Define: Unconditioned Stimulus + Conditioned Stimulus
Uncon. Stimulus: causes the response naturally without learning
Cond. Stimulus: causes the response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus - same as a neutral stimulus
The learning of reflexive, biological behaviors - PAVLOV AND WATSON
The learning of voluntary behaviors based on reward and punishment - SKINNER
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Define MEMORY
Memory gives...
Memory uses...
Brain areas involved in memory...
Reconstructing our pasts + retaining info over time
Continuity of thought, experience, and personal history
Top-down processing to actively reconstruct our memories - we fill in the missing pieces + gloss over what we've forgotten (memories aren't carbon copies)
Hippocampus, Prefrontal cortex
Doesn't use top-down processing to link material with prior knowledge (maintenance rehearsal)
Helps us encode; makes use of top-down processing by connecting ideas (elaborative rehearsal)
Shallow-level processing
Deep-level processing
Define Cognition + Cognition Misers
Cognition: mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognition miser: when solving problems, we seek the most efficient solution. We balance efficiency with accuracy
Define: Unconditioned Response + Conditioned Response
Uncond. Response: the biological response to the unconditioned stimulus - WHAT NATURALLY HAPPENS
Cond. Response: the biological response to the conditioned stimulus - LEARNING HAS OCCURRED
Little Albert (can we condition fear?)
Behaviorists believe phobias are learned through association like any other conditioned response. Every time the white rat came out, a loud gong was played. Now Albert begins to display fear of the rat. Albert showed classical conditioning can create phobia-like behaviors
Information comes in from the environment through sense organs for further processing. We ___ only important info coming in to avoid clutter.
That info then gets ___ so we can access it later. Retaining info in either short-term or long-term memory - organize it by categorizing schemas.
The process of recalling info from your memory. Involves top-down processing
ENCODING
STORAGE
RETRIEVAL
Explain Long-Term Memory
For deep-level processing, we must apply info from LTM to new info (top-down processing)
Explicit Memory: recalling info intentionally with conscious awareness (frontal lobe + hippocampus)
Semantic - knowledge about the world's facts - George W was the 1st president (left frontal lobe)
Episodic - memories about our personal life events - what color did you wear to prom (right frontal lobe)
Implicit: info with no conscious effort - not deliberate recall
Procedural memory - procedural skills, like riding a bike ~ cerebellum + basal ganglia
Subconscious memory - priming studies show that we remember some info subconsciously without realizing we ever stored it
Cognition Terms
Algorithm: step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution - long division without shortcuts
Heuristics: mental shortcuts to get an answer more quickly w/o going through every single step every single time - like using top-down processing for problem-solving
Availability - we estimate how likely an event is based on its "mental availability" - can influence our judgment of risks (safer to fly or drive)
Framing Info - the way info is presented to you influences how you interpret that info - 90% survival is better than 1/10 chance of dying
Belief perseverance - the tendency to cling to a belief when there is evidence to the contrary
Confirmation bias - seeking evidence to confirm your hypothesis and ignore competing evidence - blocks critical thinking + creative solutions to problems
Every time a murder happens in a movie, minor chords play. Soon you learn to get scared when you hear chords. What is the NS, US, CS, UR, and CR?
Murder: Unconditioned Stimulus
Minor Chords: Neutral stimulus + conditioned stimulus
Afraid of the Murder: Unconditioned Response
Afraid of the chords: Conditioned response
Reward the behavior EVERY TIME it occurs
Behaviors that are reinforced only occasionally are slower to extinguish
Continual Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
Explain Sensory Memory
Holds sensory information for a split second
Iconic Memory: visual memory that lasts for under a second. It's a perfect copy of the visual scene - almost like an afterimage because it disappears quickly (the flash and doctor light)
Echoic Memory: auditory memory for whatever sound you just heard. Lasts 3-4 seconds - the "afterimage" or "echo" of a sound
Errors in Memory
1. Flashbulb Memories: distinct memories of an emotionally significant event - aren't as accurate/specific as we think due to the many times we retell the story
2. Misinformation Effect: providing people with misleading information after an event can lead to false memories - Loftus + Palmer
James-Lange Theory
Arousal first, then Emotion
Common sense tells us we cry because we are sad but the theory says we feel sad because we cry - bodily sensation comes first
Emotions result from attention to our bodily activity
What is a Reinforcer?
Define: Positive + Negative Reinforcement
Reinforcer - the reward, which strengthens the probability of a response
Positive: Giving a reward to encourage good behavior (going out to dinner after getting an A on a test)
Negative: Taking away an unpleasant stimulus to encourage good behavior (stop taking your child's phone away if they don't do their chores)
What is Observational Learning?
learning by watching/modeling others - models can be parents, teachers, or friends
we learn by watching others' rewards + punishments
behavior can be learned through observation
Actively processes info from sensory memory by combining it with material from long-term memory (top-down processing)
Short-Term Memory
Memorizing lists of words:
Primacy: tend to remember items from the beginning of a list because you have the most time to rehearse them - Hippocampus
Recency: tend to remember items at the end of a list because you just heard them - Prefrontal Cortex
Von Resteroff Effect: we tend to remember an item that sticks out like a sore thumb
Serial Position Effect - RETRIEVAL
Emotion and arousal occur simultaneously
A racing heart can signal many emotions: love, excitement, fear, nerves
The heart pounds as one experiences fear. Heart pounding doesn't cause the fear, and the fear doesn't cause the heart to pound - occur independently
Cannon-Bard Theory
What is a Punishment?
Define: Positive + Negative Punishment
Punishment - any outcome that weakens the probability of a behavior
Positive: administering an unpleasant stimulus to decrease an unwanted behavior (spanking your child if they don't listen)
Negative: Removing a positive stimulus to stop a bad behavior (taking your child home from a playdate if they don't stop misbehaving)
Bobo Doll Experiment
IV? DV? Experimental Group? Control Group? Confounds?
Children were in 2 conditions: watching an adult play with Bobo nicely AND watching an adult beat up Bobo
IV: Adult being aggressive with Bobo in front of the kids
DV: children's behavior towards Bobo
Experimental group: kids in condition 2 - watching the adult be violent with Bobo
Control group: kids in condition 1 - watching the adult play nicely with Bobo
Confounds: if the kids were exposed to violent actions before the experiment. Each child could have a different level of aggression
Increasing capacity of STM
Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating info over and over again - like a phone number
Elaborative: elaborating on a stimulus by linking it to something else - visualizing an OHIIIIIIO! sign or remembering a famous date, pilot episode of The Flash ~ October 7th, 2014
Mnemonic Devices: example of elaborative rehearsal - memory tricks for retaining info in STM - "PEMDAS" or "FOIL"
Self-Reference Effect: another ex of deep level processing. When you connect material in a personally meaningful way, you encode it into LTM more effectively
Amnesia and George Miller's Magical Number 7
Type 1: Anterograde - losing the capacity to form new memories
Type 2: Retrograde - losing information from a portion of your past
George Miller: 7+/-2 put the words into meaningful chunks to help remember them
Arousal and Cognitive label = emotion
The way we appraise (interpret) our experience matters
Both physical reactions and our thoughts (perceptions, interpretations) create emotion
Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory