Experiments
The way that participants are allocated to conditions in a true experiment.
Random allocation
The type of observation where the researcher takes part in activities with the participants in their usual environment.
A naturalistic participant observation. If it is with the consent of the individual, then it is overt; without consent, it’s covert.
You want to carry out interviews with CEOs who are in recovery from drug addiction. What is the best way to get your sample?
Snowball sampling
Case studies use triangulation.
Name and explain two types of triangulation.
Data triangulation (from more than one source); researcher triangulation; method triangulation, theoretical triangulation (e.g. using a biologist, cognitive theorist and a social worker to carry out tests).
When a participant acts in a specific way to avoid looking bad, dishonest or unpatriotic in front of the researcher.
Social Desirability Effect. The example of “unpatriotic” is linked to Brown & Kulik’s classic study.
The problem that arises when the controls are so good that the researcher can no longer predict behaviour in a natural environment
Low ecological validity
What are the advantages of a non-participant observation?
It is easier to take notes. Since the researcher is not part of the activity being observed, note-taking is relatively easy. It is also non-invasive, it does not interfere with the behaviour of the participants or influence their behaviour in any way. Easier to have several researchers watching the same behaviours to establish inter-rater reliability.
What is the difference between a structured and an unstructured interview?
Structured interviews have a set of questions that must be asked; unstructured interviews are conversations that have a focus, but no specific list of questions.
Case studies are difficult to generalize. What is one type of generalization strategy?
Representational generalization: can be applied to other populations;
Inferential generalization: applied to other populations in a similar situation (also called transferability)
Theoretical generalization: the results can be used to generate theories.
The problem with correlations that we cannot know if x causes y, if y causes x, or if there is no true cause and effect relationship.
Bidirectional ambiguity
Why is it important to replicate research?
To test the reliability of the study
What is one limitation of a covert observation?
It may violate ethics; if it is a participant observation, it means that notes have to be taken in private, which means that notes rely on the memory of the researcher.
Give an example of an interviewer effect.
The halo effect – where the interviewee finds the interviewer attractive; the tone of voice or body language of the interviewer which may influence the mood of the interviewee. The age or gender of the interviewer.
When finishing the case study, researchers must think about how their own personal biases or experiences may have influenced their findings.
What is this called?
Personal reflexivity
One problem with using retrospective studies.
Problems of memory distortion. In addition, it is often not possible to verify whether the memories are accurate.
When an experiment is done so that neither the people who are doing the experiment nor the people who are the subjects of the experiment know which of the groups being studied is the control group and which is the test group.
Double blind control
After carrying out an analysis of her field notes, a researcher shares her interpretation of the observation with her participants. Why does she do this?
To establish credibility – that is, that the participants confirm the validity of her interpretations.
Bonus points for Member Checking
What are two limitations of a focus group?
Difficult to maintain confidentiality; conformity effects; not good for sensitive or private questions; there may be status or gender influences. Sometimes difficult to facilitate. Someone may dominate.
Identify two limitations of the case study method.
Researcher bias; longitudinal which means they require a lot of time – may mean attrition of participants or researchers; difficult to generalize to other populations; not replicable.
This is the opposite of a longitudinal study; it looks at the behaviour of a larger part of a population at a specific point in time.
Cross-sectional study
A study looked at the effect of television on aggression in children. Aggression levels were measured before television was in the community and then one year later. What type of experiment is this?
Natural experiment
Name two limitations of carrying out an overt observation.
Reactivity; social desirability effect; expectancy effect.
Why are focus groups open to sampling bias?
They are often samples of opportunity; in addition, researchers often exclude people based on certain characteristics that they feel would unduly influence the interview.
The type of reflexivity when a researcher considers how their methodological approach may have affected the results.
Epistemological reflexivity
How can a researcher try to avoid acquiescence bias from happening in an interview?
Be careful not to ask leading questions, making their questions open-ended, neutral and focused on the opinions of the participant
Too many questions —> Fatigue
Don’t make participation obligatory → lowers motivation (screw you)