The Scientific Process
What does it mean for psychologists to be empiricists?
They use observations or evidence to evaluate ideas.
Why is it hard to tell whether venting helped your anger based only on how you felt afterward?
You do not know what would have happened without venting; you lack a comparison group.
In a study where every participant completes the same 10-minute task, is task length a variable or a constant?
A constant.
A measure gives people similar scores when they take it on two occasions. Which type of reliability is this?
Test-retest reliability
Which Belmont principle emphasizes informed consent and people’s ability to make their own decisions?
Respect for persons.
A researcher records students’ descriptions of how they felt before an exam. Is this qualitative or quantitative data?
Qualitative data.
After someone vents, they feel calmer. They also went for a walk and talked with a friend. What are the walk and conversation possible examples of?
Confounds, or alternative explanations.
Researchers ask participants how many hours they study each week. Is study time measured or manipulated?
Measured.
Two observers independently rate the same classroom behavior and usually agree. Which type of reliability is this?
Interrater reliability
Which Belmont principle asks researchers to weigh potential benefits against risks and protect participants from harm?
Beneficence.
A researcher studies memory to understand how it works, with no immediate practical goal. Is this basic or applied research?
Basic research
You notice every story about a therapy that worked but overlook stories in which it did not. Which bias does this illustrate?
Confirmation bias, or focusing on the evidence you expect.
“52% of adults drink coffee in the morning.” What type of claim is this?
A frequency claim.
External validity focuses on:
The extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to other contexts outside of the study.
What is the purpose of the IRB?
to protect the rights, welfare, and privacy of subjects participating in research activities
One study finds that listening to Mozart improves performance on a particular task. What should scientists do before becoming confident that the effect is dependable?
Repeat or replicate the study and consider the findings across multiple studies.
A study finds that venting tends to increase aggression, but one person feels less aggressive after venting. Does that single exception disprove the research finding? Explain.
No. Research findings are probabilistic; they describe patterns and allow for exceptions.
Why does manipulating the study method before the exam help support a causal claim?
It establishes temporal precedence: the proposed cause comes before the measured outcome.
An anxiety questionnaire contains four questions about satisfaction and one about liking animals. Which type of reliability might the polka-dot item weaken, and why?
Internal validity. That item is unlikely to produce a response pattern consistent with the items measuring anxiety.
A researcher proposes an animal study involving distress. What should reviewers consider before allowing it?
Whether the research has a justified purpose or potential benefit, whether an alternative approach is possible, and how the researchers will protect animal welfare and prevent unnecessary suffering.
What problem is this denial of evidence creating for the theory?
It is not falsifiable: the explanation makes it impossible for evidence to show that the theory is wrong.
A vivid story about one person’s experience makes an outcome seem common. Which bias discussed in class could explain this?
The availability heuristic: examples that come to mind easily can shape our judgment.
A study finds r=-.75 between absences and final grades. Describe the direction and strength of the relationship. Can this result alone show that absences cause lower grades?
It is a strong negative relationship: more absences tend to go with lower grades. The correlation alone cannot establish causation.
A bathroom scale gives the same reading every time, but it is always five pounds too high. Is it reliable, valid, both, or neither? Explain.
Reliable but not valid for measuring accurate weight: its readings are consistent but inaccurate.
In the Milgram studies, participants believed they might be seriously harming another person. Name two ethical concerns this raises.
Possible answers: participants’ stress or harm; whether the risks were justified; the use of deception