Mysteries
Isnad
Chain of transmission of a particular (often oral) tradition. Feature of medieval Islamic sources, in managing sources about earlier periods of Islam. Developed for Hadith and Islamic law, but more broadly then used across Islamic source materials. A whole medieval science develops for verifying trustworthiness of transmission/a given isnad, including massive biographical dictionaries of transmitters.
John of Damascus
Said to be last of the Greek church fathers. Arabic-speaking Christian who was possibly trained for administration in the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus but became a monk. One of the first Christians to engage (and critique) Islam and the Qur’an. Writes definitive defense of icons.
Council of Orleans
Clovis calls this council several months before his death. And attempts to compromise between Frankish heartland north of the Loire and more “Roman” lands in south of the Loire in Aquitaine. The majority of bishops at the council are from the North but the head of the Council is from the South. So the following is enacted, as a way of trying to unify the kingdom and move on from Arianism (which had been promoted by the Visigoths in Aquitaine): Arian bishops and churches can be re-consecrated as Nicene as join Clovis’ church. Clovis models the calling of this council clearly after Constantine’s calling of Nicaea (and sources thus present him as a new Constantine). This council becomes the model for Merovingian councils and is common in the 6th century. Church canons codify laws in Merovingian context.
Major domus / Major palatii
Literally the mayor of the palace. It became the sought after title among the leading aristocrats in Austrasia and Neustria, since it represented the leading aristocrat, who thus had the ability to intermediate between other wealthy aristocrats and the kings. Increasing importance of Major domuses versus kings is part of the rise of the aristocrats over kings, leading to the Pippinids (hereditary major domuses of Austrasia, the Eastern Frankish kingdom) essentially taking control of Austrasia. Charles Martel, as major domus, would conquer whole Frankish world. Only fully abandoned by Pippin the Short in 751 when he officially usurps the Merovingian king with Papal support.
Legal Pluralism by Design
The conscious idea in the Frankish world that people should be able to have and keep their own laws, based on where the people were and what their descent is. At first, under Clovis, there is legal pluralism by default in the diverse kingdom made up of many conquered lands/peoples. Over time, in the Merovingian world, it becomes legal pluralism by design. Legal pluralism in the Frankish kingdom was connected to ethnicity. At first, this means something that is not tied to place, but by descent /membership within the ethnic group (which of course was a dynamic process) – but later gets more complicated in the Merovingian period as groups becomes associated with specific lands. This period would be pointed to by 19th century Europeans when thinking about the origins of distinct “nations” in this period. And it was their own historical contingent ideas of “nationhood”, built on the Franks own complex and developing idea of different “peoples,” which was eventually spread throughout the world through European imperialism and colonialism.
Byzantine Papacy
Period from the 6th through 8th century, after Justinian reconquered Rome and until Pope Zacharias who allied with Carolingians and made Pippin King of the Franks (751), when papacy is essentially under the thumb of the Byzantine emperors and their leading officials in Italy, the exarch in Ravenna. Zacharias is the last of the “Byzantine popes.” Many of these popes were Greek-speaking: all Greek-speaking popes came from Calabria or Syria/Palestine. Over time, as Byzantines became weaker in Italy (losing ground to Lombards) and also more authoritarian in actions toward popes (including in relation to Iconoclasm, which Popes hated), popes come to not see much advantage in aligning with the Byzantines, and decide to align with the Franks instead.
Frankish conquest of the Avars
Portrayed as attempt to convert pagan peoples and integrate them into the Christian world. Not very much of the Avar empire was part of the Roman empire in the past. Starting in the late 780s these are the wars that are Charlemagne’s focus, even though the war with the Saxons is still on-going. The idea of campaigning into Avar territory was terrifying to the Franks, and the Avars are referred to as Huns in some sources. They are fear-inspiring as a Barbarian, non-Roman population. Avar world is a world they do not really understand. The Franks make extensive military and ideological/spiritual preparation for these wars. Perceived as a Christian holy war. Franks start establishing relations with Slavic groups on Avar borders; but there is not quite yet (even by the mid 790s) a major battle during first massive campaign in 791. Second major campaign (with smaller army coming from Italy) in 795 achieves key victory: conquest of Avar capital, and its giant treasury of gold. Avars are tremendously rich because the Byzantines were paying them tribute in massive amounts. After conquest of these regions, Bishoprics in eastern Frankish empire (particularly Bavaria) becomes responsible for ministering to the Avars.
Iconoclasm
Refers to two eras in Byzantium in 8th and 9th century: from c. 730-787 and from 814 to 842, when emperors promoted policies against icons (religious images). Literally means the destruction of icons. (Clasm = “breaking”, from Greek) This is, to be sure, a polemical term – iconoclasms just call themselves Christian. They saw themselves as fighting idolatry (and also made christological arguments for why icons were bad). Most of the resistance to iconoclasm comes from monks. In the Islamic world, aniconism was already popular before Leo III (and iconophiles often paint their iconoclast opponents as influenced by Muslims and Jews to be polemical).
Constantine V "the Dung-Named"
Supposedly defecated in baptistry during his baptism. Long-reigning and very successful Iconoclast emperor, who was the son of Leo III. Seems much more theologically dedicated to iconoclasm / defining it than his father. Convenes Council of Hieria in 754 which makes iconoclasm official religious policy of the empire. He enjoyed military success throughout his reign, invaded deep into Umayyad Syria. Though iconoclasts really hated him, people seem to have loved him (and missed him after his death, when more defeats—leading to restoration of iconoclasm in 814).
Photian Schism
860s schism over the appointment of Photius to bishop of Constantinople. East-West split because Pope refuses to recognise him. This split is mainly about practice, rather than religious dogma (like whether to use leavened bread in the eucharist, beards and marriages for priests, and whether to recite the “Filioque” in the Creed). This context of the East-West split is important for understanding the Christianisation of the Slavs, and for the eventual final split between east and west centuries later, which also occurred over matters of heteropraxy rather than heterodoxy.
Cyrillic
Script invented by Cyril and Methodius to represent the Slavic language. This is a script based on Greek. They developed it for the Moravians, but it actually would be taken up and given its lasting importance when it was taken up by the Bulgarians, who saw it as a useful way of creating a national (Slavic-speaking) church for their kingdom The West argues that there are only 3 official Biblical languages: Hebrew, Latin, Greek. In the East there is a more tolerant atmosphere around translation to other languages—they see translation as imperially useful.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq
One of the most important translators of the Abbasid translation movement. He was a native Arabic-speaker from Hira (former Lakhmid capital), but also knew Syriac and Greek. Becomes one of the major figures in dictating what translation can be. Translates phrase by phrase and thus can create pretty fluid and beautiful arabic (rather than stilted translationese). Risala of Hunayn is a compendium of all works of Galen involved in the translation movement. In addition to translations into Arabic, many things were translated by Hunayn at the time from Greek into Syriac and grows it as a language of scholarship (alongside Arabic, rather than being immediately replaced by Arabic). Hunayn also wrote his own works, e.g. Questions on Medicine for Students, which became a medical textbook. Many of his patrons were physicians (particularly for translations into Syriac), as well as scholarly elite families in Abbasid Baghdad.
Buyids
A Persian group from the mountainous region of Daylam in Northern Iran. Rule Baghdad from 945-1055. Are Shi’i but have a Sunni caliph. They have an Abbasid puppet. The ‘Abbasids are no longer the sole leaders of the Islamic world.
Twelver Shiism
The largest denomination of Shi’ism today. Believe that there are 12 imams, starting with Ali and then his sons Hasan, Husayn, and Husayn’s descendants. They believe in the return of the Mahdi—the 12th imam who they say has gone into “occultation” in the late 9th century. They really form as a distinct group in the 10th century, in thinking about how the Mahdi would reemerge from occultation.
Louis the Pious
The only surviving son of Charlemagne, and inheritor of the Carolingian empire in 814. Seeks to cleanse Aachen morally and sexually. He cleanses the palace of women and forces his half brothers to become clerics. By the end of Louis’ reign, people are writing critiques of Charlemagne’s sexual mores. Moral intensity also comes back to bite him. Does a famous planned public penitence at Attigny in 822 to make himself a moral model for the kingdom and reunify family (after he had had his cousin Bernard blinded/killed). His four sons cause him constant succession issues, leading to civil war against his three older sons, defection of his army at the Field of Blood in 833, and then him being deposed and forced to do another public penitence, very degrading. Comes back to power after that (his sons can’t agree), but Carolingian power forever fractured upon his death.
Viking
Lit. Norse word for someone who travels by ship (but also has meaning in Norse of pirate, essentially). A specific distinction of a certain kind of person in Norse society. This is not an ethnic delineation. Travelled far and wide, and there are many theories as to why Viking raids occurred, from 8th – 11th centuries. They were not professional soldiers; they were free men who took up the occupation of being pirates, but this also entailed them trading as they traveled (the two went hand in hand).