Anatomy
Name the five parts of the bladder
Apex, body, fundus, bladder neck and trigone of the bladder
what is the most frequent nephrotic syndrome in adults?
membranous glomerulonephritis (peak 30-50 years old)
name the phases of gastric acid release
basal, cephalic, gastric, intestinal
Name the three unpaired visceral branches of the aorta. Which supplies the foregut, midgut and hindgut?
foregut: celiac trunk
midgut: superior mesenteric artery
hindgut: inferior mesenteric artery
name three things will be seen on histology in coeliac disease
1. intraepithelial lymphocytes
2. villous atrophy
3. crypt hyperplasia
What is the gastrocolic reflex?
The neural activation of colonic peristalsis that occurs when stomach cells are stretched following a meal.
name and describe 2 anomalies of kidney migration
Pelvic kidney - the kidney remains in the pelvis and does not ascend.
horseshoe kidney - fusion of both kidneys into a horseshoe shape - they get caught on the inferior mesenteric artery
briefly describe the pathogenesis of minimal change disease
Immune dysfunction → Cytokines production → Damage to epithelium and effacement of podocytes foot process → Proteinuria (Defect in charge barrier)
what are the four main cells in gastric acid secretion, and what do they produce?
- acetylcholine (from vagus)
- gastrin (G cells)
- histamine (ECL cells)
- somatostatin (D cells) (inhibits)
describe the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the stomach and one function when stimulated
sympathetic - T5/9 via greater splanchnic nerve. (↓ Glandular secretion, ↓ Peristalsis, ↑ Sphincter tone)
parasympathetic - vagus nerve. (↑ Glandular secretion, ↑ Peristalsis, ↓ Sphincter tone (i.e., sphincter relaxation))
Name the three types of renal cell carcinoma in order of most common to least common, and three risk factors.
clear cell (70-80%)
papillary (10-15%)
chromophobe (5%)
smoking, HTN, Asbestos, Petroleum, Heavy metals
Describe the process of swallowing (deglutition)
1. swallowing voluntarily initiated. tongue presses bolus against hard palate
2. tongue propels bolus into pharynx
3. swallowing centre inhibits respiratory centre in brain stem
4. elevation of uvula prevents food from entering nasal passageway
5. Position of tongue prevents food from reentering mouth
6. Tight alignment of vocal cords prevents food from entering the trachea
7. Epiglottis folds over closed glottis
8. Contraction of pharyngeal muscles pushes bolus through opened pharyngo-esophageal sphincter into esophagus
9. Pharyngo-esophageal sphincter closes, oropharyngeal structures return to resting position and breathing resumes