Schema Theory Concepts
What is 'rationalization'?
To adapt or omit information so that what we recall is consistent with our existing schema.
What was the aim of Stone et al. (2010)?
To see how stereotypes influence the perception of information.
Define 'stereotype'.
A widely-held generalization about a group of people.
What was the aim of Loftus & Palmer (1973)?
To see if leading questions can create false memories.
Which words or phrases can we use to create well-developed critical thinking points?
"that is..."
"so..."
"because..."
etc
What are two applications of Schema Theory?
1. Understand stereotypes.
2. Improve reading programmes in schools.
3. Help reduce discrimination in HR departments.
What was the aim of Cohen (1981)?
To see how social schema / stereotypes influence the perception and recall of new information.
Define 'cognitive bias'.
A systematic error in thinking or decision making that negatively affects the accuracy of one or more cognitive processes (e.g. memory or decision making).
How many conditions were there in Loftus & Palmer's 1st and 2nd experiments?
1st: 5 conditions
("Contacted", "Hit", "Bumped", "Collided", "Smashed")
2nd: 3 conditions
("Hit", "Smashed", and a no question control)
Explain 'generalizability'.
The extent to which conclusions from a study can be applied to context beyond the study itself. This is another term for external validity and applies to quantitative studies.
Define 'schema'.
A schema is a cluster of knowledge or memory that is stored in the mind, or an "organized packet of information about the world, events, or people stored in long-term memory" (Eysenck & Keane, 2010).
What was the aim of Bransford and Johnson (1972)?
To see how prior knowledge (schema) can influence comprehension and memory.
Define 'the misinformation effect'.
The creation of false memories because of inaccurate information introducted after an event occurred.
(Post-event information).
How do Loftus & Palmer's two experiments support the claim that memory is reconstructive?
The higher intensity verb acts as false information and caused the misinformation effect by producing a false memory of something that didn't happen (e.g. broken glass). This suggests that memory is reconstructive in nature and the information we hear about after an event (post-event information) can distort how we remember it.
What does 'MAGEC' stand for?
MAGEC:
i. Methodological evaluation
ii. Alternative explanations / Areas of uncertainty
iii. Gender bias
iv. Ethical considerations
v. Cultural bias
What are two sub-types of schema relating to how we view and act in relation to other people?
Social schema (e.g. stereotypes)
Social scripts
Which study of schema was conducted on a sample of 51 undergraduates from Princeton University?
Stone et al. (2010)
The basketball player study
Explain the concept of 'reconstructive memory'.
The idea that our memory does not act like a device that accurately records all of our experiences and plays them back later. Instead, our memory go through an active reconstructive process. Distortions and errors can occur during this reconstruction.
What were the results of Loftus & Palmer's first experiment?
Stronger verbs led to higher average speed estimates:
- Contacted = 32 mph
- Hit = 34 mph
- Bumped = 38 mph
- Collided = 39 mph
- Smashed = 40 mph
Name three concepts that influence whether or not we can draw conclusions about causality between variables from a study.
Internal validity
Extraneous variables
Ecological validity
Level of Control
Temporal validity etc
What are the key claims of schema theory?
Schemas can...
1. ... help us make sense of the complex world of information that we live in.
2. ... affect our cognition and behaviour (e.g. can cause confirmation bias).
3. ... save our cognitive energy and make processing information easier.
4. ... affect our ability to comprehend new information.
Which studies from the following were true experiments? Bransford & Johnson (1972), Stone et al. (2010), and Cohen (1981).
All three are true experiments.
Define 'confirmation bias'.
A particular type of bias in thinking and decision making. When a person tends to focs on (and remember) information that is consistent with her or her existing beliefs or schema.
What were the results of Loftus & Palmer's second experiment?
- 32% of the "smashed" condition said they saw broken glass.
- "Hit" condition = 14%
- No question control condition = 12%
How can a researcher reduce bias?
1. Triangulation
2. Controls (in experiments)
3. Replication
4. Reflexivity
5. Sampling (i.e. use a large sample to avoid sampling bias)