Definitions
Describe SIT in one sentence.
Social Identity theory proposes that the way people think about themselves and others is based in part on the groups to which they belong.
Define culture.
Culture refers to the behaviors, attitudes, and identities that are common among a group of people. It is thought that culture develops as a solution to the needs of a people in a specific environment.
Define model, self-efficacy, reinforcement, and vicarious learning.
Model: Another person's behavior, which is being observed and learned
Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to accomplish a task.
Reinforcement: The consequences of behavior (it can be positive or negative)
Vicarious learning: Learning not just from personal trial-and-error but also from observing others
Describe the Schaller 1991 study (related to social identity theory).
SCHALLER 1991
Aim: To determine if group membership influences the formation of stereotypes (or causes in-group bias).
Sample: 152 US University Students
Method: Independent measures true experiment - Read a booklet of statements. Told A is more common (and read more statements). Then rated each type.
IV: Group membership (group A, B, or control). Randomly assigned but the participants didn't know that.
DV: Ratings of trait association and overall impression of each personality type.
Results: Control group rated both groups equally but associated rare group (B) with rare traits (illusory correlation). A, B groups remembered the + traits of their group and - traits of other group & rated own group higher.
How does Schaller 1991 relate to SIT?
SIT predicts that we are likely to remember good traits of our own group and bad traits of other groups.
Describe SCT in one sentence.
Developed by Albert Bandura in 1961, SCT states that behavior is learned not just from personal trial-and-error but also from observing others (vicarious learning).
Name and describe one cultural group.
Honor culture exists where individuals place a high value on social reputation, and where men feel obliged to protect their reputation, often through violence. Honor cultures may develop in areas with portable wealth and inadequate law enforcement -areas where a reputation for strength/violence may be necessary to ensure your well-being.
Name and describe 3 factors which influence behavior according to SCT.
Behavioral Factors: These involve actions and decisions, practice, self-observation, and self-judgment.
Environmental Factors: These are barriers or support to learning, feedback, social norms, and social models.
Personal Factors: This category includes attitudes, beliefs, self-efficacy, knowledge, motivation, and mood.
Describe the Bandura et al. 1965 study (related to social cognitive theory).
BANDURA ET AL. 1965
Aim: To determine whether vicarious reinforcement (observed rewards and punishments) affect the likelihood children imitate aggression.
Sample: 66 boys & girls, age 3-6 years, from the university daycare.
Method: Independent measures true experiment - Children watched a 5 minute video during which an adult male model was verbally and physically aggressive to a Bobo doll. The children were then escorted to an experimental room with the Bobo doll and a wide range of other toys. The experimenter said he would be 'right back' and left the room, but the children were observed through one-way mirrors.
IV: ending to video: control, reward (candy, soda, praise), punishment (scolding and spanking)
DV: Number of aggressive acts to Bobo doll
Results: Children who viewed the punishment video did fewer aggressive acts than those who viewed the control or reward video.
How does Bandura et al. 1965 relate to SCT?
How it relates to SCT: The children through vicarious learning, observed the adult male model (environmental factor) and adopted behaviors that they can perform successfully (personal factor-self efficacy) based on the adult's actions.
Define power distance index.
PDI is a measure of the extent to which less-powerful members of a group accept and expect that power will be distributed unevenly.
Define stereotype and stereotype threat.
Stereotypes: Overly generalized and fixed ways of thinking about a group of people
Stereotype threat is psychological threat felt when someone is in a situation in which they feel they may be stereotyped. Stereotype threat can cause stress, anxiety, & underperformance.
Name and describe the three steps of SIT.
Social Categorization: This is the cognitive process where the individual divides the social world into those who belong to their specific social group (the in-group/us) and those who do not (the out-group/them).
Social Identification: This refers to the behavioral and cognitive process when individuals adopt the identity and behavioral norms of the in-group(s).
Social Comparison: This occurs when individuals evaluate their in-group against out-group(s). In-group bias, positive distinctiveness, and attribution errors are phenomena associated with social comparison.
Describe the Steele and Aronson 1995 study (related to the effects of stereotypes).
STEELE AND ARONSON 1995
Aim: To determine if stereotype threat reduces performance of black students on an academic exam.
Sample: 114 Stanford undergraduates
Method: Independent measures true experiment - All students took a 30 min test using questions from the GRE (a graduate school entrance exam). The test was described in different ways to different groups of students.
IV: Condition 1 (stereotype threat): Test was described as a measure of intellectual ability. Condition 2 (control 1): Test was described as a problem-solving task that was unrelated to intellectual ability. Condition 3 (control 2): Test was described as a challenge (in hopes to raise motivation)
DV: Their score
Results: There was no difference in the scores of black and white students in the two control conditions. When the test was described as a measure of intellectual ability, black students performed significantly worse than both white students and black students in the control conditions.
How does Steele and Aronson relate to the effects of stereotypes?
How it relates to effects of stereotypes: Study portrays stereotype threat. Black students probably felt they may be stereotyped in Condition 1, so it caused underperformance.
Define cultural dimension.
Cultural dimensions are a way to describe and quantify how cultural groups differ in values, attitudes, and behavior. The model was developed by Hostede, and currently includes 6 different dimensions along which culture differs.
Describe how SIT and illusory correlation may contribute to the formation of stereotypes.
Illusory correlations - our minds find false associations between variables; especially btwn 2 rare variables
SIT predicts that we are likely to remember good traits of our own group and bad traits of other groups
Define socialization and cultural norm.
Socialization is a life-long process where the individual learns to behave compatibly with social and cultural norms and through them acquire a sense of identity.
Cultural norms are the written or unwritten rules for behavior in a society.
Describe the Cohen et al. 1996 study (related to cultural groups).
COHEN ET AL. 1996
Aim: Does honor culture influence the reaction to an insult.
Sample: 148 undergrad men, raised in the North and the South US
Method: Independent measures quasi-experiment - Men walked down a narrow hallway to drop off a paper and were bumped into and insulted (or not) by a confederate. On the way back to the room a second confederate walked toward the participant, refusing to give way. They estimated how close they got to the participant (approach distance) before the participant stepped aside. Then, back in the experimental room, they were introduced to a third confederate. After this brief meeting the participant self-rated the impression they made on the confederate (in terms of manliness, strength, courage, etc.), and the confederate rated the participant on eye contact, firmness of handshake, and domineering vs. submissive behavior.
IV: Northern or Southern & insulted or not
DV: Approach distance, self-rating, confederate rating
Results: Non-insulted southerners had the greatest approach distance (most polite) and insulted southerners had the shortest approach distance (most aggressive). Northern men showed much less change. Both northern and southern men felt that they appeared less manly in the insult condition (vs. control), but insult had a much greater affect on Southerners' self perception. Southerners in the insult condition showed much greater handshake grip, eye contact, and dominance behaviors during an introduction compared to controls. Little change in Northerners.
How does the Cohen et al. 1996 relate to cultural groups?
How it relates to cultural groups: The study shows the existence of honor culture down South.
Describe acculturation and acculturative stress.
Acculturation is a process of psychological and cultural change as a result of contact and interaction between cultures.
Acculturative stress is the psychological strain of striving to adapt to a new culture or of trying to cope with conflicting cultural norms.
Name & describe 2 acculturative 'strategies'.
Integration: An individual interacts regularly with the new culture and may adopt some aspects of that culture while holding on to their original culture's values and beliefs.
Assimilation: An individual strives to adopt the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of the new culture.
Separation: An individual strives to maintain their original culture and avoids contact with a new culture
Marginalization: An individual is excluded from the new culture and unable to maintain their original culture
Define enculturation
Enculturation is a type of socialization where children acquire the necessary and appropriate norms of their own culture.
Describe the Hui et al. 2004 study (related to cultural dimensions).
HUI ET AL. 2004
Aim: To determine if empowerment impacts decision making and job satisfaction in low and high PDI cultures.
Sample: 180 hospitality majors in Canada (low PDI) and PRC (high PDI)
Method: Quasi-experiment - Each participant read 1 of 4 scenarios about a customer wanting to book a room but rooms are booked and others are on the waitlist ahead.
IV: PRC/Canada AND scenario
DV: Intention to book a room for the customer AND job satisfaction.
Results: Having both a good reason and having empowerment. Increased the likelihood of booking a room increased levels of job satisfaction of both groups, however, the increase in job satisfaction was much higher in the Canadian participants (low PDI) than the PRC participants (high PDI).
How does Hui et al. 2004 relate to cultural dimensions?
How it relates to cultural dimensions: Cultural Dimensions show how attitudes, norms, and behaviors differ between low and high PDI countries in relation to likeliness of booking a room for the happiness of the customer.