Theory
He coined the term sociology.
Who is Auguste Comte?
What do positivists use to examine society?
Positivists prefer to collect quantitative data. For example:
What are the key objectives and purposes of conducting social surveys in modern societies?
Social surveys are conducted to gather information on various aspects of society, such as people's opinions, beliefs, behaviors, and living conditions. The main objectives include understanding societal trends, identifying patterns, evaluating policies and programs, and informing decision-making in both public and private sectors.What is "defining the problem?"
A representative subset of a group of people being studied.
What is a sample?
What are the two core principles of positivism?
The macro sociological theory emphasizes the ways in which the structures of society contribute to stability within society.
What is the functionalist perspective?
A testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
What is an hypothesis?
Describe two strengths and two limitations of using triangulation in sociological research.
allows the researcher to support quantitative data with qualitative examples
• it can be used to check the validity of the research • it can be used to check the reliability of the research using different sources
• it can be used for cross-referencing the researcher’s interpretations to other data collected to check for accuracy
• it can provide balance between methods, where one may be weaker than another in that particular area of research
• triangulation expands the research in a way that a single approach can’t
• Any other reasonable response.
limitations:
• using several methods is time consuming and expensive
• the researcher needs to be skilled in several research methods
• positivist and interpretivist approaches are based on very different ideas, so it may be difficult to combine them in one piece of research • Any other reasonable response.
Explain why some sociologists use official statistics.
• they are readily available and often found online – ease of access
• in many cases they are free or cheap to use
• governments spend time and money collating official statistics in a way few sociologists could afford
• the samples are often large so representative data is available
• the methods used to collect official statistics are often high in reliability
• they can be used in longitudinal research allowing researchers to discover trends
• they allow comparisons to be made such as between men and women or between different areas of a country
• Any other reasonable response.
Why do some sociologists prefer qualitative data?
The reason some sociologists prefer qualitative data is it gives an account of how people see the world (interpretivism argue the structural nature of positivism imposes the sociologist's view about what is or isn’t important on the respondent, this is because for example structured interviews are created by sociologists views on what are the important questions which need answering).
The sociological perspective that assumes that social behavior derives from tension between groups who are competing over power and resources.
What is the conflict perspective?
Describe two limitations of using content analysis in sociological research
it is far from objective. Researchers generate their own categories from which to code and these become second-order constructs
• the researcher, usually working alone, has to place individuals in categories – this is a subjective technique.
• quantitative research falls to examine the ideological messages about the groups being studied • most content analysis is empirical research and not based upon a body of theory • can be extremely time-consuming
• is subject to increased error, particularly when semiotic analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation
• is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
• is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
• tends too often to consist of word/image counts simply – lacks validity
• often disregards the context that produced the text • very difficult to obtain a sample that is representative of all media
• Any other reasonable response.
Describe two limitations of using case studies in sociological research.
Possible answers
: • the findings may only apply to the case – so generalisations cannot be made;
• the study cannot be replicated as it is unique – and this limits reliability;
• the deep involvement of the researchers may lead them to being influenced by their own feelings – thus decreasing the validity of the findings;
• case studies can be very time consuming – the data collection process can be very intensive;
• when conducting a case study, it is very possible for the author to form a bias/subjective view – thus affecting the validity of results;
• case study method may have errors of memory or judgment – recorded data may not be accurate;
• with small studies, there is always the question of ethics – at what point do detailed and in depth studies become intrusive;
• any other reasonable response
Mohamed examined data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau in order to understand the relationship between race, ethnicity, religious tradition, and social class. This is an example of this type of research.
What is secondary analysis?
What does Marxism argue?
He argues that modern industrial societies are based on a fundamental conflict between different social classes.
How do longitudinal and cross-sectional social surveys differ, and what are the benefits and limitations of each approach?
Longitudinal surveys track the same participants over time, allowing for the analysis of changes within individuals or groups. Cross-sectional surveys collect data from different participants at a single point in time, providing a snapshot of a population. Longitudinal surveys can capture causal relationships but are more time-consuming and expensive, while cross-sectional surveys are quicker and cheaper but cannot establish causality.
A relationship between two variables in which a change in one always coincides with a change in the other.
What is a correlation?
How can researchers ensure that social survey samples are representative of the target population?
Researchers can ensure representative samples by using probability sampling techniques, such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, or cluster sampling. These methods give each member of the target population an equal chance of being selected, reducing the potential for bias and increasing the generalizability of the results.
Jean Kilbourne examined magazine and T.V. advertisements in order to study gender socialization and social dysfunction. Jean is engaging in this type of research.
What is content analysis?
What do interpretivists believe?
Individuals are in control, pulling the strings of society. People make the societies they live in and change them through their actions.
To what extent are macro structuralist approaches the most useful for understanding society?
Possible arguments for:
• the macro structuralist is a top down approach that sees social institutions and structures as more important than individual actions ;
• structuralist theories are supported by key sociological thinkers and perspectives such as Durkheim, Marx and Functionalism, they are supported by a large body of work produced by eminent sociologists;
• structuralism is a macro sociological approach that examines the relationship between key institutions such as family, education, religion, media, and law;
• structuralist approaches allow us to see the relationship between key institutions in society;
• structuralist approaches often use big studies such as social surveys to establish social facts;
• positivists use official statistics which are often large quantitative data sets so they can spot patterns, trends, correlations and causal relationships;
• Durkheim’s (a key Functionalist thinker) structural study of suicide remains a key sociological study despite having been carried out over 100 years ago – this provides a model for establishing large scale correlations;
• Marx’s conflict theory can be applied to the major institutions in society and this structural theory seeks to establish ideological links between the key institutions in a society e.g. education and the workplace;
• functionalists offer a consensus theory which can be can be applied to the major institutions in society and this structural theory seeks to establish functional links between the key institutions in a society e.g. the family and education;
• structuralists work with large samples which are representative and so can make generalisations;
• Marxism unveils the interests of the dominant and powerful groups in society – a micro study couldn’t make these claims;
• any other reasonable response
To what extent are focus groups the most effective research method?
Possible arguments for:
• discover how different groups think and feel about a topic and why they hold certain opinions
• they are useful to obtain detailed in-depth information about personal and group feelings, perceptions and opinions
• they can save time and money compared to individual interviews
• they can provide a broader range of information
• they offer the opportunity to seek clarification
• allows respondents to discuss issues freely providing rich qualitative data that is high in validity • allows researchers to find out not just what respondents say but also how they respond to the views of others
• focus groups are closer to real life than individual interviews enabling researchers to achieve verstehen • Any other reasonable response.
Possible arguments against:
• there can be disagreements and irrelevant discussion which distract from the main focus
• they can be hard to control and manage
• with many respondents speaking at once it can be difficult to both record and analyse data
• it can be difficult to encourage a range of people to participate
• some participants may find a focus group situation intimidating or offputting;
• participants may feel under pressure to agree with the dominant view
• they are often self-selected samples so they may not be representative
• individual qualitative interviews are easier to manage and record data from
• covert observation avoids the Hawthorn effect
• participant observation has the advantage of seeing respondents in their natural environment
• Any other reasonable response.
Explain why objectivity is difficult to maintain when carrying out sociological research.
Possible responses:
• sociological is not a pure science and so it is difficult to eradicate human factors from research – sociological research does not take place in a test tube;
• with case studies the researcher can become too close to the subject matter and lose a sense of objectivity;
• questionnaires often suffer from the imposition problem – there may be inherent bias in the questions;
• observations may lead to the researcher ‘going native’ – hence the researcher becomes too involved and loses objectivity;
• focus groups may affect individuals differently – some may become dominated by one respondent and so lose objectivity;
• official statistics used as secondary data may have been recorded to support the government’s position; • interviewees may give socially desirable answers and hence the data gathered may be biased;
• when designing content analyses researchers construct categories according to their own preconceived ideas;
• when using historical documents the body of material may only represent a small portion of the views apparent at the time;
• when using diaries as secondary data it can be difficult to verify the truth of what was written, individuals may have lied or exaggerated;
• any other reasonable response