New Deal
Situation in the US at the start of Roosevelt's presidency
Great Depression, Southern Democratic dominated Congress, Dust Bowl.
Dust Bowl:
The Dust Bowl (a period of drought) swept through the Great Plains from 1930-36
Heavy winds caused topsoil erosion, aided by the lack of annual rainfall
Thousands of families were displaced
Definition of Filibuster
An action such as a prolonged speech that obstructs progress in a legislative assembly.
Was often used by Southern white politicians to prevent the passage of anti-lynching lesgislation. Examples of such politicians include Senator Borah and Governer Rolph.
Black Cabinet
AAA (hinderances and improvements)
Improvements:
Benefitted African American farmers by extension, especially considering that most of them were employed in the agricultural sector.
Subsidies
Hinderances:
Subsidies → many farmers chose to evict their sharecroppers and tenant farmers
Majority of subsidies went to landowners, who were primarily white. The program did not have the provisions to ensure that tenant farmers or sharecroppers received a share of the financial benefits.
Detroit riots
When population of black Americans doubled in Detroit between 1940 and 1950
When black worers showed up in Packard Motors, it prompted a strike from 25000 white workers, who resented the upgrading of 3 black workers.
Strike halted 45% of plant's production, and prompted several other riots
Impact of the situation on his agenda as president
Was hesitant to put civil rights on his agenda, believing it would alienate his Southern white voters (needed them for re-election).
Meant that any progression of civil rights was merely a byproduct of his policies, not the aim.
Definition of the Solid South
The politically united southern states of America, traditionally regarded as giving unwavering electoral support to the Democratic Party.
Exclusion of black voters
in 1941, only 3% of eligible black voters were registered.
Roosevelt criticised the poll tax but never did anything to end it. Poll tax and literacy tests were still commonly used to disenfranchise black voters..
CCC (hinderances and improvements)
Improvements:
Enrolled 200,000 black men in its 9 year life span
87% of all black American enrollees participated in the education programs, receiving a vocational education in preparation for a “black job”
Hinderances:
There was tension amongst the local populations of a black American CCC camp being in their vicinity, which were mainly centered around fears of the effect of so many black Americans on social stability
Black enrollees were often restricted to low skilled jobs
Segregation of colored and white enrollees
Changes in composition of cities outside of the South
Detroit: 100.4% increase in population between 1940-50
Chicago: 77.4% population increase of black Americans between 1940-50
New Deal
“I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American people”
Aimed to improve the economic situation of the US
Amount of lynchings that happened
Between 1901-29, there were over 1200 black Americans lynched.
Most cases were in Georgia (250), and Mississippi (225)
Why did black Americans change their vote
- many benefitted economically from New Deal relief measures
- Eleanor Roosevelt's time in assisting black Americans
- Roosevelt increased the number of black employees in federal bureaucracy from 50000 in 1932 to 150000 in 1941.
NRA (hinderances and improvements)
Achievements:
Collective Bargaining → allowed African American workers to advocate for better wages and working conditions without fear of retaliation from employers
Job Creation → indirectly benefited AAS, increased job opportunities.
Abolished child labor
Hinderances:
Increased regulation to reduce black employment or eliminate positions held by black workers entirely.
Codes of fair competition were exploited to discriminate against black workers, setting lower wages or exclusion from jobs.
Impact of migration
But also positives: the increase in the concentration of black Americans in urban areas, combined with them working in vital areas like defense, gave them more political power. Allowed for the development of the FEPC
Examples of Eleanor Roosevelt's activism
Ensured that prominent black Americans like NAACP chief Walter White frequently met with her husband. For example, with the Costigan-Wagner Bill of 1934.
Her ‘My Day’ column, which was published across 90 newspapers across the nation, and reached a potential audience of 4 million Americans. Actively used it as a platform to spread her message promoting civil rights and spreading light on the issue.
In 1940, she promoted National Sharecroppers Week and the National Committee to Abolish the Poll Tax.
Costigan-Wagner Act
Proposed federal trials for any law enforment officers who failed to exercise their responsibilities during a lynching incident.
Failed after a 6 week filibuster, and lack of support from the Roosevelt administration
Changing voting patterns statistics
in 1932, 70% of black voters supported Republican candidate Hoover.
in 1936, 76% said they would vote for Democrat Roosevelt.
FHA (hinderances and improvements)
Achievements:
House ownership is more accessible.
Standardized mortgage practices
Hinderances:
Systematically denied loans to black Americans through redlining, labeled predominantly black neighborhoods as risky and unworthy of mortgage investment
Segregated cities and suburbs, affecting schools, jobs and other opportunities.
Reasons for northern white exodus to the South
1. housing shortage post WW2
2. land prices cheaper in suburbs
3. increased car ownership + federal highway construction made it easier for suburbanites to commute to work
4. affluent white people sought to live comfortably in racially and economically homogenous suburban neighborhoods.
Impact of Great Depression on black Americans
Had a more disastrous impact on black Americans
Urban black unemployment ranged between 30-60%
Black unemployment 4-6 times higher
Last hired and first fired
NAACP anti-lynching campaign
Managed to secure support from Congressional Republican representative Dyer, tried to pass the Dyer Bill but failed after a filibuster.
Tried to pass the Costigan-Wagner Act, but failed.
In general: campaigned and lobbied for anti-lynching legislation using speeches, etc.
FEPC
Protected equality in defense industries, where 2 million black Americans would eventually be employed. However:
- 2/3 of the 8000 job discrimination cases referred to the FEPC were dismissed
- only 1.5 of Southern cases were black victories.
PWA (hinderances and improvements)
Achievements:
Made housing affordable → e.g Harlem River Houses provided 574 units of housing specifically for African American residents.
Support for African American colleges → directed funds toward improvement of facilities at historically Black colleges, like the Howard and Fisk Universities
Hinderances:
Segregation in housing projects → for example the Techwood Homes in Atlanta there were white only and the Harlem River Houses were exclusively for African Americans
White contribution to ghetto growth
1. white violence and force
2. restrictive covenants (used to exclude black Americans from white neighborhoods, black tenants paid higher rents for poorer quality accommodation, etc)
3. white flight (into the suburbs to avoid paying taxes needed to assist the ghettos)
4. role of federal government and urban decay