Techniques of translation
Translate the sentence using a calque: Science fiction.
Science fiction → Научная фантастика
What is Translation Studies?
Translation Studies — the field that studies how meaning is transferred between languages and cultures.
What is a pragmatic problem in translation?
A difficulty in translation that happens when the meaning, tone, or intent of a text cannot be conveyed word-for-word and must be adapted for context, culture, or audience.
What is the main purpose of translational compensation?
Answer: To solve translation problems when a direct, literal translation is impossible. It helps convey the meaning, function, or cultural concept of the original text in a way the target audience will understand.
Translate the following sentences using grammatical transformations: The book was written by him.
The book was written by him → Он написал книгу
What is modulation? Give an example.
Changing the point of view or wording to convey the meaning naturally.
Example: He didn’t succeed → Он провалился.
Name two main types of translation.
Two main types of translation:
Written (literary, technical)
Oral / Interpretation
Give an example of a phrase that requires pragmatic adaptation.
Don’t be late! → «Пожалуйста, приходи вовремя.»
She spilled the beans. → «Она раскрыла секрет.»
What is the difference between Transliteration and Transcription?
Transliteration converts letters from one writing system to another.
Example: The Russian спутник becomes sputnik.
Transcription (or Phonetic Translation) converts the sound of a word.
Example: The French baguette is transcribed as /baˈɡɛt/, reflecting its pronunciation.
What are grammatical transformations? Give an example.
Changes in sentence structure or word forms.
Example: He is reading a book → A book is being read by him (voice change)
What is adaptation? Give an example
Translation that changes cultural or contextual elements to make them understandable or natural in the target language.
Example: Happy New Year → С Рождеством и Новым годом (changing the greeting to match the local tradition).
What is equivalence in translation? Give examples.
Equivalence — similarity in meaning and effect between the source and target texts.
For example: Не kicked the bucket. → Он скончался.
How can cultural differences create pragmatic translation problems?
Some expressions or references depend on the culture. If the target audience doesn’t understand them, the translation must adapt.
Example: He’s a bookworm. → «Он любит читать больше всего на свете.»
What is Loan Translation (Calque)?
It's a phrase that is translated literally,word-for-word, from another language.
English: Smartphone
Russian Calque: Смартфон (from "smart" + "phone")
What are lexical transformations? Give an example.
Changes in words to adapt the meaning.
Example: big → huge, child → kid
Divide the following techniques into direct and oblique:
Borrowing, modulation, literal translation, adaptation, compensation, and calque.
Direct: borrowing, calque, literal translation
Oblique: modulation, adaptation, compensation
What is functional translation? Give examples.
Functional translation — translation focused on the purpose (skopos) of the text; the translated text should perform the same function as the original.
Example: Translating an advertisement to suit the target culture.
What strategies can translators use to overcome pragmatic difficulties?
Functional/communicative equivalence (keep the effect)
Cultural substitution or adaptation
Explicitation (make implicit meaning clear)
Contextual rephrasing for politeness or clarity
When is Descriptive Translation used?
It is used for culture-specific terms with no direct equivalent.The translator replaces the word with a short description of its meaning.
Example:
Source Term: Russian Samovar
Descriptive Translation: A traditional Russian metal urn used to boil water for tea.
What are finite and non-finite forms of the verb? Give examples.
Finite: verb shows tense, person, number (She writes, They went)
Non-finite: verb does not show tense or person (to write, writing, written)
What is the difference between direct and oblique techniques?
Direct — word-for-word translation, keeping the original structure.
Oblique — indirect translation, changing structure or wording for naturalness.
What are the main approaches in translation?
Linguistic: focuses on language structure and shifts (Catford, Nida)
Functionalist: focuses on purpose and communicative function (Reiss & Vermeer)
Cultural: translation as a cultural act influenced by ideology (Lefevere, Bassnett)
Cognitive/Communicative: focuses on mental processes and comprehension (Seleskovitch, relevance theory)
Why is functional (communicative) equivalence sometimes more important than literal accuracy?
The translator’s goal is to preserve the meaning, tone, or effect, even if the words change. Literal translation might confuse or mislead the audience.
Example: That’s cool! → «Это здорово!»
When is Neologisms used?
To introduce new concepts or terms from the source culture into the target language, especially in technical or scientific fields. Examples: Gig Economy - A labor market characterized by short-term contracts or freelance work as opposed to permanent jobs. Doomscrolling - The act of continuously scrolling through bad or depressing news online.
What are the main stages of the translation process?
Comprehension — understanding the source text
Transfer — converting meaning into the target language
Reproduction — producing the final translated text