Nervous System
Define the central nervous system and identify its two main components.
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information and coordinating responses.
Outline the three components of the fight–flight–freeze response.
The fight–flight–freeze response includes: increased physiological arousal to confront (fight), escape (flight), or become immobilised (freeze) when facing a threat.
Describe the flow of information through the Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory.
Information is first registered in sensory memory, then moves to short-term memory through attention, and with encoding, it is transferred to long-term memory.
Describe the three phases of classical conditioning using Pavlov’s dog experiment.
Before: bell (neutral) + food (UCS) → salivation (UCR); During: bell + food repeatedly; After: bell (CS) → salivation (CR).
Define an approach strategy in the context of stress coping.
An approach strategy involves actively confronting and addressing the source or emotional impact of a stressor.
Distinguish between the autonomic and somatic nervous systems based on their function.
The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary bodily functions (e.g. heart rate), while the somatic nervous system controls voluntary muscle movements.
State the name of the stress hormone released during chronic stress.
Cortisol
Identify the brain structure involved in forming long-term episodic memories.
The hippocampus
Construct a scenario that demonstrates the use of reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning.
A student studies and receives praise (positive reinforcement), forgets homework and loses phone time (negative punishment), and continues to study to avoid consequences.
Identify one avoidance strategy used to cope with stress.
Denial
Describe how a spinal reflex allows for a rapid response without conscious brain input.
A spinal reflex occurs when sensory neurons send signals directly to motor neurons via the spinal cord, enabling a quick, automatic response without input from the brain.
Recount the three stages of Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome.
The stages are: (1) Alarm – the initial response to a stressor; (2) Resistance – the body adapts and tries to cope; (3) Exhaustion – resources are depleted, and resistance drops.
Contrast semantic and episodic memory, and explain how they support cognition.
Semantic memory stores factual knowledge; episodic memory stores personal experiences. Together, they help individuals recall the past and plan for the future.
List the five stages of observational learning, according to Albert Bandura.
Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement
Assess the context-specific effectiveness of using approach vs. avoidance strategies.
Approach strategies are generally more effective for long-term coping, while avoidance may be temporarily helpful in uncontrollable or acute stress situations.
Explain the role of neurotransmitters such as glutamate and GABA in neural transmission.
Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that increases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing, while GABA is inhibitory, reducing the likelihood of firing.
Compare the biological and psychological models of stress using Selye’s and Lazarus & Folkman’s theories.
Selye's model focuses on the physiological stages of stress, while Lazarus & Folkman's model emphasises cognitive appraisal. Both explain stress responses but from different perspectives.
Explain the lack of mental imagery experienced by people with aphantasia.
Aphantasia may result from reduced connectivity or activation in brain regions associated with visual imagery, such as the visual cortex and prefrontal cortex.
Distinguish between positive and negative reinforcement using examples.
Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus, while negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one.
Evaluate the importance of coping flexibility in managing long-term stress.
Coping flexibility is crucial as it allows individuals to modify strategies based on the context, leading to better psychological outcomes and adaptability.
Analyse the role of synaptic plasticity in learning, referring to Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and Long-Term Depression (LTD).
Synaptic plasticity strengthens or weakens synaptic connections. Long-term potentiation enhances learning by strengthening connections, while long-term depression prunes unused pathways, making learning more efficient.
Examine the significance of the gut–brain axis in understanding stress responses.
The gut–brain axis reveals a bidirectional relationship where gut microbiota influence stress responses and mental health, offering insight into holistic stress regulation.
Analyse the role of the cerebellum in the storage of procedural or implicit memories.
The cerebellum coordinates motor function and stores procedural memories. Its role in implicit memory supports the unconscious performance of learned skills.
Discuss how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing integrate cultural, social, and environmental learning.
These perspectives view learning as relational and holistic, involving connection to Country, community, storytelling, and observation within a multimodal knowledge system.
Explain how primary and secondary appraisal function in Lazarus and Folkman's model.
Primary appraisal assesses whether a situation is threatening; secondary appraisal evaluates one’s ability to cope with it, influencing the emotional response.