Coverings and membranes
___________ make up about 99% of epidermal cells.
keratinocytes
The cell membrane of a muscle cell is called the _________.
sarcolemma
The tendency of a single muscle cell or a single motor unit to either fully contract or not contract at all is known as what?
Bonus: What type of contraction is seen on a whole muscle level that describes the fact that at any given time only a certain amount of the whole muscle is contracted?
The "all or nothing" principle
Bonus: Graded contraction
6 seconds
Aerobic production of ATP is limited by what 2 factors?
the ability of the heart and blood to deliver fuel and oxygen and the # of mitochondria in the cells
Bonus: what is another name for the combination of the 2 materials in the second part of the question
organic, collagen, inorganic, calcium, phosphorous
Bonus: hydroxyapatite
The cutaneous membrane secretes _________ to aid in thermoregulation and _________ to moisturize and protect the body from microbes.
sweat, sebum
What is a motor unit?
A single neuron and the muscle cells that it stimulates.
The entire process from the action potential to the contraction and relaxation of the muscle is known as what?
Excitation-contraction coupling
Name the 3 pathways by which our muscle cells produce ATP.
Bonus: Which one is the preferred method, and where does each take place in the cell?
Aerobic pathway, anaerobic pathway, direct phosphorylation
Bonus: aerobic pathway
aerobic - mitochondria, anaerobic & direct phosphorylation - cytoplasm
During light to moderate activity, the demand for ATP is ___, and the aerobic pathways uses mostly ______ as fuel.
Bonus: what else is used as fuel during light to moderate activity?
low, lipids
Bonus: carbs/glucose
The primary place where we need Ca++ to be regulated is in the _____, which is comprised of 2 different fluids: ______ ______ and ______.
ECF, interstitial fluid, plasma
_________ _________ line cavities and passageways that have a connection to the exterior of the body, and secrete _______, which traps foreign debris (respiratory), lubricates passageways (digestive, reproductive), and protects the stomach lining from stomach acid.
Mucous membranes, mucus
This structure in skeletal muscle has voltage gated calcium channels that open up and flood the interior of the cell with calcium when it is "shocked".
SR - sarcoplasmic reticulum
When the action potential enters the cell via the _-______, the _____ _________ is "shocked", releasing ______ into the cytoplasm.
Bonus: How does the substance released to the cytoplasm get removed and put back to where it belongs?
T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, Calcium
Bonus: Active transport via calcium channels
To accomplish direct phosphorylation, we need ______ ______ and _____.
creatine phosphate, ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate)
during strenuous physical activity, demand for ATP is _____, and _______ is the primary fuel being used because it is ______.
Bonus: what is the byproduct that makes our other primary fuel source "dirty"?
high, glucose, clean
Bonus: ketones
The breaking down and building back up of the bone matrix is known as ______ _________.
Bonus: name the 2 parts of this process
bone remodelling
Bonus: bone resorption, bone deposit
_________ _________ are found at "freely moveable joints" and secrete _________ ________, which acts as a lubricant, reducing friction in the joint capsule.
synovial membranes, synovial fluid
Describe T-tubules
tubes made of the sarcolemma that dive down into the cell, allowing the action potential to "shock" the SR.
The smallest unit of contraction within a skeletal muscle is the __________. It is made up of ________ named _____ and _____.
sarcomere, myofilaments, actin, myosin
In the first steps of the aerobic and anaerobic pathways, _________ is broken down to make 2 molecules of ______ ______, and there is a net gain of __ ATP.
Bonus: In anaerobic pathway, this is then converted into what? and why?
glucose, pyruvic acid, 2
Bonus: lactic acid, so that it can diffuse out of the cell (pyruvic acid cannot diffuse out)
During times of strenuous activity, cells supplement the ______ _______ by speeding up the ________ _______.
Bonus: faster production of pyruvic acid (and subsequent _____ ______), lowers the ____, which limits the amount of time you can exercise.
aerobic pathway, anaerobic pathway
Bonus: lactic acid, pH
__________ is the result of years of ______ ________ happening more quickly than _____ ________, resulting in a porous appearance in the bones.
Bonus: what type of bone is this more quickly noticable in?
osteoporosis, bone resorption, bone deposit
Bonus: cancellous bone
_____ _____ _________ and _______ ____ _______ make up about 95% of all skin cancers. These are both rarely fatal, easily treated, and often cured, especially when detected and treated early.
Bonus: What is the #1 cause of these cancers?
Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma
Bonus: UV radiation
Name the 3 types of muscle based on location.
Bonus: Explain each of these based on appearance and control
Skeletal, cardiac, and visceral
Bonus: skeletal - striated, voluntary; cardiac - striated, involuntary; visceral - smooth, involuntary
Once Ca++ is released by the SR, it binds to _______.
Bonus: This in turn changes the shape of the ________, revealing _____ _______ on the _______.
troponin
tropomyosin, binding sites, actin
mitochondrion/a, acetyl-CoA, Krebs cycle
_____ ______ are rarely used as fuel.
amino acids
Mechanical stress (primarily from exercise) stimulates ____________ to be more active, ________ the levels of calcium in the ECF, and making your bones ______ and _____.
osteoblasts, lowring, thicker, stronger
Name each of the 6 serous membranes and tell about where they are located.
Bonus: explain what their purpose is and how they work to achieve this purpose.
Parietal and visceral peritoneal membranes: line a large part of the abdominal cavity and the organs within
parietal and visceral pleural membranes: line the thoracic cavity and the lungs
parietal and visceral pericardium: line the heart and pericardial cavity
Bonus: purpose is to reduce friction during the movement of the organs within these cavities by producing serous fluid
Describe myosin and its key feature/s.
myosin is a thick myofilament that has numerous myosin heads located along its length
Once the binding sites on the actin are exposed, the ____ _____ bind to the actin and change shape to "pull" the actin towards the center of the ________.
Bonus: ____ is needed to "reset" things.
myosin heads, sarcomere
Bonus: ATP
Bonus: _______ and _______ can also be used as fuels for the aerobic pathway, but the only place ATP is produced when these fuels are used is inside of the ___________.
2, electron donors
Bonus: proteins, lipids, mitochondrion/a
The ________ converts lactic acid into _______, ______, or ________. These processes require _______, resulting in _______.
Bonus: Only about ___% of the energy from the aerobic pathway is captured in ATP, the rest is "lost" as _____.
liver, PA, glucose, glycogen, oxygen, EPOC.
Bonus: 40, heat
When calcium levels decrease, the ________ ______ releases _________ ______, which stimulates _________, resulting in an _______ in the levels of Ca++ in the ECF.
parathyroid gland, parathyroid hormone/PTH, osteoclasts, increase
______ ______ makes up about 5% of all skin cancers. It is most deadly because it is prone to _______, and it is resistant to ___________.
Bonus: What cells does this begin in? + explain what to look for to identify this.
malignant melanoma, metastasis, chemotherapy
Bonus: melanocytes, A - Asymmetry, B - border irregularity, C - Coloration (2+ colors), D - diameter (>1/4 inch), and E - elevation/enlargement (is it rising up or spreading outwards?)
Describe actin and any associated proteins.
Actin is a thin myofilament, arranged in a spiral. Binding sites along the actin are covered by the protein tropomyosin, which has another smaller protein attached to it called troponin.
What type of substance interferes with the enzyme that is supposed to break down acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft?
Bonus: what can this substance be found in, and what is the name of the enzyme it interferes with?
organophosphate
Bonus: "nerve gas", pesticides, acetylcholinesterase
The Krebs cycle branches off into the ______ ______ ______, which goes on to produce about ____ ATP, and the byproducts of _______, ________, and _____.
Bonus: What must ALWAYS be the final molecule in this process?
electron transport chain, 32, water, CO2, heat
Bonus: oxygen
Name the 4 things that oxygen is needed for post strenuous activity in order to fully recover.
oxygen reserves in myoglobin, conversion of LA to PA, glucose, or glycogen by the liver, cells to replenish ATP and CP, cells to replenish glycogen stores.
What are the 3 target tissues of PTH?
Bonus: how does PTH work in each of these tissues?
bone - stimulates osteoclasts to work faster
kidneys - increases reabsorption of Ca++ in the kidneys
small intestine - increases absorption of Ca++ from dietary sources