The Nervous System & The Brain
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Processes of Seeing
Processes of Hearing
Memory
Learning
Random
100
Identify the two parts that make up the peripheral nervous system.
the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
100
Describe the structure of a neuron.
There are many types of neurons, but generally they are made up of dendrites, the soma, the axon and the axon terminals. Most axons are coated with myelin.
100
Explain what the cornea is and its function.
100
Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
The temporal lobe.
100
Explain the capacity and duration of long-term memory.
The capacity and duration of long-term memory are both potentially unlimited.
100
Describe classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning based upon the repeated association of different stimuli. It demonstrates how an organism (i.e. animal or human) can passively learn to show a naturally occurring reflex action, such as salivation, in response to any stimulus. It is learning through association, and can also be referred to a Pavlovian conditioning.
100
What is aphasia?
The impairment of language caused by damage to the brain.
200
Determine what the actions of someone who has damage to the primary motor cortex might be like.
If damage occurs to the right primary motor cortex, a person will be unable to move parts of their body on the left side such as their left and leg, the reverse will happen if the left primary motor cortex is damaged.
200
Differentiate between dopamine and serotonin.
Dopamine is involved in thoughts feelings, motivation and behaviours, whereas serotonin is involved in the regulation of mood, sleep, eating arousal and pain.
200
What is the visible light spectrum for humans?
360-760 nanometers
200
What are the three regions of the ear?
Outer ear, middle ear and inner ear
200
Explain the process of encoding, storage and retrieval.
Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory; storage is maintaining encoded information in a memory store so that it can be used later; retrieval is the process of getting information back from our memory storage for use.
200
Describe operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which punishment and reward drives behaviour.
200
What is aversion therapy?
A form of treatment using classical conditioning to cause an undesired behaviour to create an unwanted response, thereby reducing the incidence of the behaviour.
300
Explain the spinal reflex.
A spinal reflex is a fast, automatic response to a stimulus that is controlled by the spinal cord without needing input from the brain
300
Compare GABA and glutamate.
GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms nervous activity, and glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter throughout the nervous system, necessary for changes in synapse that occur with memory formation, both are associated with insomnia.
300
What is a perceptual set?
A perceptual set in vision is a mental predisposition to perceive visual stimuli in a specific way based on expectations, past experiences, motivation, or context.
E.g. The Rat-Man experiment.
300
What is the role of the optic nerve in visual perception?
The optic nerve transmits impulses to the brain from the eye.
300
Describe the multi-store model of memory.
The multi-store model of memory is a model that suggests that memory consists of three memory stores; a sensory store, a short-term memory store and a long-term memory store.
300
Explain social learning theory.
Social learning theory describes the way in which people acquire certain behaviours by watching and learning from role models; the initial focus of observational learning.
300
What does standard error measure?
Standard error measures how much a sample's result (like a sample mean) is likely to differ from the real population's true value.
400
Differentiate between a monosynaptic reflex arc and a polysynaptic reflex arc.
The monosynaptic reflex arc involves only one synapse, where an affective neuron brings a sensation from the sensory receptors in the body and an affective neuron carries motor messages to the muscles of the body. A polysynaptic reflex arc involves interneurons connecting the affector and effector neurons, and, therefore, at least two synapses.
400
Contrast depletion of neurotransmitters in Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.
Patients with Alzheimer’s disease have abnormally low levels of several neurotransmitters, most importantly acetylcholine, whereas patients suffering Parkinson’s disease have low levels of dopamine.
400
Explain the two perceptual constancies and how these help us maintain a stable perception of a stimulus.
Size Constancy
The constant perception of an object’s size, even though the size of the image on the retina alters as the object moves nearer to or further from us.
Shape Constancy
An object is perceived to maintain its known shape despite the changing perspective from which it is observed
(There is also colour constancy)
400
How does the amplitude of a soundwave influence our perception of sound?
Amplitude corresponds to volume.
400
Compare the roles of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
The phonological loop is auditory, it is the storage of what we hear, whereas the visuospatial sketchpad is visual, and stores information about what we see. Both storage systems are in working memory, and are accessed by the central executive.
400
Define neutral stimulus and provide an example using Pavlov's dogs.
A neutral stimulus is not associated with any learnt response prior to conditioning. For example, in Pavlov’s experiments a bell does not initially have any effect on salivation.
400
What is hippocampus responsible for?
Regulation and expression of emotion and memory.
500
Describe the three regions of the brain involved in voluntary movement.
The basal ganglia is a group of structures in the brain that includes the caudate nucleus, the putamen and the globus pallidus, and the subthalamic nucleus. The basal ganglia enables voluntary movement by operating a complex feedback loop.
The cerebellum is located in the hindbrain. It stores sequences of movements that have been previously learnt. It also coordinates and integrates information about movements from other areas in the brain to help us move in ways that are smooth.
The primary motor cortex is located at the rear of each frontal lobe. It is responsible for movement of the body’s skeletal muscles, and activates the neural impulses that execute voluntary movement.
500
How do SSRI's work in increasing serotonin levels? For a bonus 50 points, what disorders are they used to treat typically?
SSRIs work by blocking (“inhibiting”) reuptake by the pre-synaptic neuron, meaning more serotonin is available to pass further messages between nearby nerve cells.
Anxiety disorders and Major Depressive Disorder.
500
Name two Pictorial Depth cues and explain them.
Linear perspective: Parallel lines (like train tracks or a road) appear to converge as they recede into the distance, giving a sense of depth.
Interposition (overlap): When one object partly blocks another, the blocked object is perceived as being further away.
Texture gradient: Surfaces appear to have less detail and finer texture the further away they are, while closer areas show more detail.
Relative size: When objects are expected to be the same size, the one that casts a smaller image on the retina is perceived as further away.
Height in visual field: Objects placed higher (closer to the horizon line) in our field of vision are seen as further away, while lower objects appear closer.
500
What is the description and role of the cochlea?
The cochlea is a tiny, fluid-filled, spiral-shaped cavity in the inner ear that resembles a snail shell and is essential for translating sound waves into electrical signals the brain can understand.
500
Compare the capacity and duration of iconic memory and echoic memory and identify which part of memory they belong to.
They both sort incoming information; echoic memory uses auditory images stored in raw form in the inner ear and has a duration of 3–4 seconds, whereas iconic memory uses visual images stored in raw form in the eyes with a duration of 0.3 seconds.
500
Compare modelling and vicarious learning.
Modelling is when a person copies the behaviour or attitude demonstrated by another person; vicarious learning is similar as it is when a person copies a behaviour or attitude demonstrated by another person, though part of vicarious learning is that you are more likely to copy a behaviour if the person is rewarded for the behaviour or attitude.
500
Describe the role of Broca's area and where it is located in the brain.
Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe of the dominant hempisphere (usually the left).
It is essential in speech production.
600
Discuss how the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are involved in the fight-flight-freeze response, using an everyday example of when the two systems may be activated.
The fight-flight-freeze response is activated by both the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is like an emergency system that becomes active when the organism is threatened. It prepares the body for action, such as running away or fighting the threat. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system controls the freeze response. This is activated when you are aware that you are unable to fight or outrun the threating stimulus.
600
What are some factors that can cause an increase in the production of serotonin?
It could include the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) as well as diet and exercise.
600
Identify the stages of visual perception.
1 Reception by accessory structures
2 Transduction by sensory receptors
3 Transmission to the CNS via the optic nerve
4 Preliminary processing in the thalamus
5 Organisation and interpretation in the primary visual cortex
600
Compare the roles of the thalamus and the
auditory cortex in processing sound.
The thalamus acts as a relay station, receiving auditory information and sending it to the appropriate areas of the brain. The auditory cortex then processes and interprets the sound, helping us recognise things like pitch, volume, and speech.
600
Compare the roles of the hippocampus in memory and in emotion.
The hippocampus is involved in establishing the background or context for each new memory such as the location, situation and memory of places. The hippocampus plays an important role in the relationship between emotion and memory, including both the emotions that are generated by particular memories and memories that are triggered by emotions.
600
Using the language of classical conditioning, explain exactly how Pavlov’s dogs were conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Prior to Pavlov’s conditioning, the dogs did not elicit a response to the bell, but naturally salivated at the presentation of food.
Therefore:
NS: Bell, no response
UCS: Food
UCR: salivation at the presentation of food.
During conditioning, the NS (bell) was repeatedly paired with the UCS (food) to produce the UCR (salivation when presented with food).
After conditioning, as a result of the pairing the CS was now the bell, and the CR was salivation at the sound of the bell.
600
What is proactive interference and retroactive interference? (memory)
Proactive - when learnt material inhibits our ability to retrieve new material
Retroactive - when newly learnt material inhibits our ability to retrieve learnt material