Voltaire
In Candide, Voltaire challenges the optimism of philosophers like Leibniz who argued that because God is perfect, this world must be the best possible outcome.
No. Through constant, exaggerated scenes of suffering, natural disasters (like the Lisbon earthquake), and human cruelty, Voltaire demonstrates that the world is filled with unnecessary evil, making blind optimism ridiculous
What is the "state of nature" and how is it governed?
A state of perfect freedom and equality, governed by a "law of nature" (reason) which teaches that no one ought to harm another's life, health, liberty, or possessions.
How can political liberty be guaranteed within a state?
Through the separation of governmental powers. Montesquieu argued that to prevent tyranny, the legislative, executive, and judicial powers must be separated and assigned to different bodies, ensuring they can check and balance one another.
What is the state of nature?
A hypothetical state of war "of every man against every man" where, without a common power to keep order, life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short".
Is it better for a ruler to be loved or feared?
While ideally both, it is much safer to be feared than loved if you cannot be both. Love is held by a bond of obligation which men break for their own advantage, but fear is maintained by a dread of punishment that never fails. However, the leader must avoid being hated.
If the world is not perfect and evil exists, how should humans live?
"We must cultivate our garden" (il faut cultiver notre jardin). Voltaire suggests that instead of speculating on abstract philosophy or cosmic causes, we should engage in practical, productive work that improves our immediate surroundings.
Through experience and sensory perception, as the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth, rejecting the idea of innate knowledge.
Authority is derived solely from the consent of the governed, established to protect natural rights (life, liberty, and property).
What happens when the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or body?
Liberty is lost, and tyranny ensues. Montesquieu famously wrote that if the same person or body controls both the making and execution of laws, there is a risk of tyrannical laws being executed in a tyrannical manner.
Why do people create a social contract?
Driven by fear of death and the desire for self-preservation, people rationally agree to surrender their individual, unlimited rights to a sovereign in exchange for security and peace.
Do the ends justify the means?
Machiavelli implies that the outcome matters more than the methods. A prince must often act against faith, charity, humanity, and religion to maintain his state, meaning "dirty" acts are permitted if they produce a successful, stable result
Voltaire challenged whether humans should follow long-held customs, laws, and religious dogma without questioning them.
Reason must prevail over superstition. Voltaire argued that institutions—especially the church and absolute monarchy—used tradition to oppress individuals, urging people to use empirical science and critical thinking to form their own conclusions
What is the basis of government authority? (Social Contract)
Authority is derived solely from the consent of the governed, established to protect natural rights (life, liberty, and property).
What is the fundamental difference between a monarchy and a despotism?
A monarchy is ruled by a single person according to fixed and established laws, motivated by "honor," while a despotism is ruled by a single person with no laws or constraints, driven by fear.
Can citizens ever disobey the sovereign?
Generally no, as disobeying violates the covenant. However, Hobbes argues a person can disobey or resist if the sovereign directly threatens their life, as the very purpose of the contract is safety.
What does it mean for a leader to have virtù?
Virtù is not traditional moral virtue; it is the skill, prowess, and ability to adapt to circumstances. A virtuous leader is a "lion" (strong/brutal) and a "fox" (cunning/deceptive), able to control fortune rather than being controlled by it.
Voltaire despised the religious fanaticism and hypocrisy of his time, which led to persecution.
Yes. As a champion of tolerance, Voltaire believed that because all people are weak and prone to error, they should tolerate each other. He argued that intolerance causes conflict, while reason encourages understanding.
When a government acts against the trust of the people by violating their natural rights, it becomes tyrannical and subjects itself to being replaced.
Consciousness and memory, rather than the soul or body, define the self, as the same conscious self can persist across different times.
What is the "spirit" of the laws?
Laws are not arbitrary but are deeply connected to the specific context of a nation, including its climate, geography, religion, commerce, and customs.
What is the purpose of the sovereign (Leviathan)?
To maintain order, enforce laws, and prevent society from collapsing back into chaos; the sovereign holds absolute power to ensure collective security.
What is the true nature of human beings?
Machiavelli holds a pessimistic view, arguing that men are generally fickle, hypocritical, ungrateful, and greedy. They are motivated by fear rather than love, and they will betray a leader whenever it is to their advantage.
Voltaire often questioned the cause of human misery, particularly the wars and injustices that plague society.
Greed, pride, and ignorance. He satirized how humanity often prioritizes selfish desires and, in his view, the lower classes were kept in a state of superstitious ignorance by authorities to maintain control.
When can people disobey or overthrow a government?
When a government acts against the trust of the people by violating their natural rights, it becomes tyrannical and subjects itself to being replaced.
How does climate influence government and liberty?
Montesquieu suggested that colder climates often foster hardiness and freedom, while warmer climates can encourage laziness and despotism. He believed governments must adjust to these environmental factors.
Are all people equal according to Hobbes?
Yes, in the sense that everyone has the natural ability to kill or harm others, even the strongest, making everyone equally vulnerable and prone to constant conflict.
How should a prince handle reputation and appearance?
A prince must appear to be pious, honest, and religious, but he must be prepared to act in the exact opposite manner when necessary. Since most people judge by appearances and results, a leader only needs to maintain a facade of virtue to keep the public content.