SIS
Define confounding variable and explain how it differs from an extraneous variable.
Confounding variables systematically vary with the IV and affect the DV; extraneous variables are uncontrolled but random.
Who proposed operant conditioning, and what is its main principle?
B.F. Skinner; behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
What is the main finding of Asch’s line study on conformity?
Around 75% conformed at least once; people conform to group pressure even when group is clearly wrong
What does a high standard deviation indicate about a data set?
Greater variability — participants’ scores are spread far from the mean.
Explain why random allocation is important in experimental design
It ensures participant differences are evenly distributed, improving internal validity
In classical conditioning, what are the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in Pavlov’s experiment?
UCS = food, UCR = salivation, CS = bell, CR = salivation to bell.
Describe one ethical issue in Milgram’s obedience experiment and how it could be addressed today
Deception/psychological distress; use thorough debriefing and ethics approval
A participant develops anxiety whenever their phone vibrates after being in a stressful chat group. Which type of learning is demonstrated?
Classical conditioning — neutral stimulus (vibration) becomes conditioned to anxiety.
A researcher finds a strong correlation between caffeine intake and anxiety. Why can’t they claim causation?
Correlation doesn’t imply causation; third variables or reverse causality may explain the relationship.
Explain how partial reinforcement differs from continuous reinforcement and the effect this has on extinction.
Partial = reinforcement sometimes → slower learning but more resistant to extinction; continuous = every response → faster extinction
How does culture affect levels of conformity according to cross-cultural research?
Collectivist cultures show higher conformity than individualist cultures due to group harmony values.
- Collectivist = Japan, China, Latin American societies. Emphasise group harmony, loyalty. Conformity is valued and rewarded.
Individualist= Australia, USA, UK. Value independence, self expression and personal achievement. Conformity not as valued.
Why might demand characteristics threaten the validity of a psychological experiment?
Participants guess the aim and alter their behaviour, reducing internal validity.
A study on sleep uses a sample of 10 university students. Identify two factors limiting generalisability
Small, unrepresentative, and homogenous sample limits population validity
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction
Explain how social identity theory can account for prejudice and in-group bias
People derive self-esteem from group membership; favour in-group and discriminate against out-group to maintain positive identity.
A student experiences peer pressure to post risky photos online. Which type of social influence is this, and what motivates it?
Normative social influence — desire to be accepted by peers.
A researcher finds p = 0.04 for the difference between two groups. Explain what this means statistically and interpret the finding
There’s less than a 5% probability the result is due to chance; reject the null hypothesis — IV significantly affected DV.
Describe one similarity and one difference between classical and operant conditioning in terms of voluntary control and learning process
Both involve learning associations; classical = involuntary reflexive responses, operant = voluntary behaviours shaped by consequences
Apply the concept of obedience to authority to explain why workers may follow unethical orders in corporate scandals.
Hierarchical authority structure, diffusion of responsibility, and agentic state reduce personal accountability, increasing obedience
A psychologist observes that teenagers imitate influencers who get likes for risky behaviour. Explain this using observational learning theory.
Attention (influencer), retention (remember behaviour), reproduction (imitate online), motivation (vicarious reinforcement via likes).